Application of Managerial Economics in Decision Making

1. 0 Introduction7 1. 1 Definition of directorial political deliverance7 1. 2 plectron and hazard address9 2. 0 Basic concerns of frugal science9 3. 0. 0 Theories of scotch science12 3. 1. 0 The speculation of fill13 3. 1. 1 Tastes14 3. 1. 2 Number of debauchers14 3. 1. 3 Income14 3. 1. 5 Expectations15 3. 2 The possibility of supply16 3. 3 The hypothesis of takings16 3. 4 The possibility of price( in organization)17 3. 5 The possible action of consumer doings17 3. 5. 1 Rational conduct17 3. 5. 2 Preferences17 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint18 3. 5. 4 Prices18 4. 0 theater directorial stintings and Economic Theories18 5. 0 ecumenical overview of the federal agency of the attorney designingetary19 6. Decision- devising centres under(a)(a) the positioning of the attorney customary20 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the attorney ordinary21 6. 2 The role of Public procurement Act, 2007 in conclusiveness-making and exertion scotch theories23 6. 3 Other purp oses25 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions25 6. 3. 2 rearing decisions25 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney prevalent and reckon constraint25 7. 0 Conclusion26 References28 TOPICAPPLICATION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN DECISION fashioning Introduction This writing attempt to discuss the exercise of managerial economics in decision-making in an organisation of my operate onplace.In discussing managerial economics a link has been do to virtu tout ensembley economic theories and their influence in decision making. The organisation selected is the Office of the Attorney General. The first part of the paper discusses what managerial economics is and how it relates to economics the purpose of opportunity embody and its application what argon the concerns of economics and how they bring in been answered. The second part of this paper discusses theories of economics which the role of the Attorney General apply directly or indirectly in its decisions.The theories whic h pull in been looked at atomic list 18 system of essential, theory of supply, theory of consumer behaviour, exertion theory and price theory. It is in this part where a brief pr each(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)ing on the family race of economic theories and managerial economics is do, emphasis existenceness assume on the general decision-making carry through. The third and fourth part of this paper discuss the general overview of the accountability of the Attorney General, its statutory berths, diverse decisions make under the site and decision criterion. Also the role of Public procurance Act, 2007 in procurement decisions is briefly looked into.The last part of the paper discusses the pertinency of economic theories in decision making under the conditions of compute constraints and worldwide monetary and economic crisis. 1. 1 Definition of managerial economics managerial economics has several definition as seed by diverse economists and authors. Thomas J. Webster defines managerial economics as the application of economic theory and quantitative methods (mathematics and statistics) to the managerial decision-making work on. Simply stated managerial economics is use microeconomics with special emphasis on those topics of greatest interest and enormousness to managers.McGuigan and Moyer define managerial economics as a branch of economics do important which deal with the application of microeconomics reasoning to real world decision-making puzzle identify about by private, familiar, and non-profit institutions. managerial economics extracts from microeconomic theory those concepts and techniques that enable a decision deliverr to select strategic direction, to all toldocate efficiently the resources of the organisation, and to respond effectively to tactical troubles. The role of managerial economics in a globalised environment shag non be overemphasized.From the supra definitions it is obvious that managerial ec onomics stems from the main subject of economics. It on that fountainheadfore important to briefly look at what economics is about so as to appreciate the nature of managerial economics. concord to Lipsey on that point atomic material body 18 three economics concerns i)The allocation of a decrees resources among utility(a)s uses and the scattering of the societys out put together among individuals and groups ii)The tracks in which increaseion and distri preciselyion commute over quantify and iii)The efficiencies and inefficiencies of economic systems.The definitions supra argon base on the position that the resources of any society consists non only of the unthaw gifts of nature, such as land, forests and minerals, however similarly of gentle capacity, both mental and physical, and of all man-made aids such as tools, machinery and buildings. It is sometimes useful to divide those resources into three main groups (1) all those free gift of nature, such as land, forests, minerals,etc. commonly exclaimed natural resources and known to economists as LAND (2) all human resources, mental and physical, both inherited and acquired, which economists call LABOUR and (3) all those man-made aids to further harvest-feastion, such as tools, machinery, blueprintt and equipment, including everything man-made which is not consumed for its own sake simply is utilize in the process of making opposite darlings and operate which economists call CAPITAL. These resources atomic number 18 called FACTORS OF PRODUCTION be m separate they be utilize in the process of realiseion. Often a fourth circumstanceor, ENTERPRENEURSHIP is distinguished.The entrepreneur is the cardinal who takes risk by introducing both hot products and natural focussings of making products. He organises the new(prenominal) factors of production and directs them on new lines. The things that atomic number 18 seduced by the factors of production ar called COMMODITIES. Com modities whitethorn be divided into safes and operate corkings argon tangible, as be cars or billet armed dish outs be intangible, as be haircuts or education. This distinction, however , should not be exaggerated corrects atomic number 18 valued because of the go they confer on their owners.A car, for ensample is valued because of the transportation that it provides-and whitethornbe too for the take to the woods of satisfaction the owner gets from displaying it as a status symbol. It is undisputable fact that every nations resources argon insufficient to produce the quantities of goods and services that would be awaitd to gather all of its citizens wants. Most of the enigmas of economics develop out of the use of meagerly resources to satisfy un control human wants. This problem brings economists and other persons to the concept of choice and opportunity cost. 1. 2 Choice and opportunity cost Choices be necessary because resources atomic number 18 simply.B ecause we netnot produce everything we would like to consume, on that point must exist some mechanism to decide what allow for be d ace and what go forth un through with(p) what goods bequeath be produced and what left unproduced what beat of money of each good allow be produced and whose wants will be quelled and whose left unsatisfied. In nearly societies many unalike people and organizations either occupy or influence those choices. Individual consumers, business organisations, labour unions and regimen officials all exert some influence. If you pick to ask more than than(prenominal) of one thing, then , where in that location is an effective choice, you must go for less(prenominal) something else. bet of a man with a real income who considers buying bread. We could say that the cost of this extra bread is so many shillings per bum about. A more uncover way of looking at the cost, however, is in terms of what other breathing in he must forge in order to o btain his bread. joint that he decides to give up cinema attendance. If the price of a loaf is one fifth of the price of a cinema seat, then the cost of quintette more loaves of bread is one cinema attendance forgone or, put other way round, the cost of one cinema attendance is five loaves of bread foregone.The concept of opportunity cost emphasizes the problem of choice by measuring the cost of obtaining a sum of one commodity in terms of the step of other commodities that train been obtained instead. 2. 0 Basic concerns of economics There atomic number 18 elementary read/write heads which economists in any society or organization need to ask and have answers as part of the process of resolving the problem of scarcity of resources and choices of satsfiable needs among the possible alternatives. The succeeding(a) atomic number 18 some of the basic questions economists should ask and attempt to answer i) What commodities be being produced and in what quantities? This quest ion arises directly out of scarcity of resources. It concerns the allocation of scarce resources among alternative uses or resource allocation. The question what determines the allocation of resources in various societies? and what atomic number 18 the consequences of conscious attempts to change resource allocation? have employed economists since earliest days of the subject. In free-market economies, almost decisions concerning the allocation of resources atomic number 18 made through the price system.The study of this system works is the main issue in the speculation OF PRICE (ii) By what methods atomic number 18 these commodities produced? This question because there is always one technically possible way in which goods and services can be produced. Agricultural goods, for example, can be produced by kitchen-gardening a smallish mensuration of land very intensively, using king-size quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery, or by farming a mountainous amount o f money of land extensively, using only small quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery.Both methods can be utilize to produce the alike total of some good one method is frugal with land but uses large quantities of other resources. The same is true of manufactured goods it is usually possible to produce the same sidetrack signal by several different techniques, ranging from ones using large quantity of labour and a few machines to one using a large quantity of highly automated machines and only a very small number of workers.Questions about why one method of production is used rather than another, and the consequences of these choices about production methods, are among the issues resolved in THEORY OF PRODUCTION (iii) how is societys payoff of goods and services divided among its members? why can some individuals and groups consume large divvy up of capital of the coupled States of the natonal output plot other individuals and groups consume only a small share? The superficial answer is because the former earn a large incomes season the later earn small incomes. entirely this only pushes the question one stage back.Why do some individuals and groups earn large incomes while others earn only small incomes? The basic question concerns the division of the gibe national product among individuals and groups. Economists wish to know why any special(prenominal) division occurs in a free-market society and what forces, including authorities intervention, can cause it to change. All these questions are discussed in discussed in the theory of DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME, which is not dealt with in managerial Economics. (iv) How efficient is the societys production and distribution?These questions quite naturally arise out of questions i, ii and iii. Having asked what quantities of goods and services are produced, how they are produced and to whom they are distributed, it is natural to go on to ask whether the production and distribution decisions are ef ficient. The concept of efficiency is quite distinct from justice. The latter(prenominal) is a normative concept, and a just distribution of the national product would be one that our value judgements told us was a good or desirable distribution. (v) are countrys resources being fully utilized, or are some of them lying idle?As we have illustrious that the existing resources of any country are not sufficient to satisfy even the most pressing needs of all the individual consumers. It may seem strange, therefore, that we must ask this question at all. Surely if resources are so scarce that there are not enough of them to produce all of those commodities which are desperately, there can be no question of leaving idle any of the resources that are accessible. Yet one of the most disturbing characteristics of free-market economies is that such waste sometimes occurs.When this happens the resources are said to be in involuntarily unemployed. Unemployed workers would like to have jobs, the factories in which they could work are available, the managers and owners would like to be able to operate their factories, raw materials are available in abundance and the goods that could be produced by these resources are urgently required by individuals in the community. (vi) is the purchasing power of money and savings constant, or is being eroded because of inflation? The worlds economies have often experienced periods of pro biged and rapid changes in price directs. all over the considerable swing of history, price trains have sometimes risen and sometimes fallen. In recent decades, however, the course of prices has almost always been upward. (vii) is the economys capacity to produce goods and services growing from year to year or is it remaining static? The capacity to produce goods and services differ in different economies. In some economies the capacity grows rapidly but verbose or stagnant in others. Stagnation and slow capacity fruit is the main feature of eco nomies of less developing countries.There are, of course, other questions that arise, but these seven questions are the mojor ones common to all types of market economies. 3. 0. 0 Theories of economics The world is a very complicated place. In understanding how markets operate, for example, the economists make a number of simplifying assumptions. Without these assumption, the ability to make predictions about the cause-and effect relationship becomes unmanageable. The practice of legal philosophy of occupy asserts that the price of a good or service and its quantity shooted are reciprocally connect, ceteris paribus.This theory asserts that, other factors remaining constant, individuals will tend to purchase increasing amounts of a good or service as prices fall and decreasing amounts as the prices rise. Of, course, other things do not remain unchanged. Along with ,changes in the price of the good or service, useable income, the prices of related commodities, tastes, and so on, may also change. It is difficult, if not impossible, to generalize consumer behaviour when multile bring determinants are simultaneously changing. It is good to remember that economics is a social, not a physical, science.Economics cannot conduct controlled, laboratory experiments, which makes economic theorizing all the more difficult. It also makes economists vulnerable to ridicule. One economic quip, for example, asserts that if all the economists in the world were laid to end, they would never reach a conclusion. This is, of course, an unfair criticism. In business, the documentary is to reduce uncertainty. Economic theories and principles are statements about economic behaviour or the economy that enable prediction of the probable effects of certain actions. Good theories are those that do a good job of explaining and predicting.They are supported by facts concerning how individuals and institutions actually behave in producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services. But these facts may change in time, so economists must continually find theories against the shifting economic environment. Despite the fact that decision making in the political science is not solely based on economic theories it is quotable discussing some of the common theories and later see if they are relevant to the office of the Attorney General. The following are some of the theories which are used in managerial economics 3. 1. 0 The theory of inviteThe claim function asserts that there is a measurable relationship between the price that a company charges for its products and the number of units that buyers are willing and able to purchase during a specified time period. Economists refer this behavioural relationship as the virtue of lead, which is sometimes called the first fundamental law of economics. The law of pauperism states that the quantity conveyed of a good or service is inversely related to the marketing price, ceteris paribus( all other determinants rem aining unchanged). The demand schedule is the simplest form of the demand relationship.It is merely a list of prices and corresponding quantities of a commodity that would be demanded by some individuals at uniform prices. This can be illustrated as shown below price of maize Tshs per tonQuantity demanded tons per month 100,000200 150,000250 200,000300 250,000350 300,000400 350,000450 400,000500 The concept of demand is based on the theory of consumer choice. individually consumer faces optimization problem, where the objective is to contract among the combination of goods that maximize his or her satisfaction or utility, subject to a constraint on the amounts of funds available(i. e. calculate) to purchase these goods. Economists lay claim that price is the most influencing factor of quantity of any product purchased. But economists know that other factors can and affect purchases. These factors, called determinants of demand. The basic determinants of demand are (i) consumer t astes(preference), (ii) the number of consumers in the market, (iii) consumers incomes, (iv) the price of related goods, and (v) consumer expectations about future prices and incomes. The determinants are expressed mathematically as follows Qd=f(P, I, T, Ps, Pc, Pe, N.. ) 3. 1. 1 TastesA favourable change in consumer taste(preference) for a product, a change that makes the product more desirable federal agency the more of it will be demanded at each price. Demand will increase the demand curve will slope functionward. An unfavarouble change in consumer preferences will decrease demand, shifting the demand curve to the left. New products may affect consumer tastes for example the introduction of compact discs greatly decreased the demand for cassette tapes. Consumers concern over the health hazard of cholesterol and obesity have increased for broccoli, low-calorie beverages, eggs, and whole milk.Over the past several years, the demand for deep brown drinks, bottled water, and spo rts utility vehicles has greatly increased, driven by a change in tastes. So, too for DVDs and digital cameras. 3. 1. 2 Number of buyers An increase in the number of buyers in the market increases demand. A decrease in the of buyers in a market decreases demand. For example improvement in communications have wedded financial markets international range and have consequently increased the demand for stocks and bonds. Also, an increase in life expectancy can increase the demand medical care, retirement communities, and nursing homes.external trade agreements have rock-bottom foreign trade barriers to most of the countries in the world, thus increasing the demand for those products. 3. 1. 3 Income How changes in income affect demand is a more compound matter. For most products, a rise in income causes increase in demand. Consumers typically buy more steaks, steaks, furniture, and electronic equipment as their incomes increase. Conversely, the demand for such products free fall as their incomes fall. Products whose demand varies directly with money income are called superior goods or normal goods.Although most products are normal goods, there are some exceptions. As incomes increase beyond some point, the demand for used clothing, work tires, and third-hand automobiles may decrease, because the higher incomes enable consumers to buy new versions of those products. Rising incomes may also decrease the demand for soy-enhanced hamburger. Similarly, rising incomes may cause the demand for charcoal grills to decline as wealthier consumers switch to gas grills. Goods whose demand varies inversely with money income are called inferior goods. 3. 1. 4 Price of related goodsA change in the price of a related good or service may either increase or decrease the demand for a product, depending on whether the related good is a substitute or a compliment. A substitute good is one that can be used in place of another good. A complimentary good is that can be used together w ith another good. Substitutes beef and lily-livered ars example of substitute goods or simply, substitutes. When the price of beef rises, consumers buy less beef, increasing the demand for chicken. Conversely, as the price of beef falls, consumers buy more beef, decreasing the demand for chicken.When two products are substitutes, the price of one and the demand for the other move in the same direction. Examples may include coca plant and Pepsi, and Kilimanjaro beer and Serengeti beer. Complement Ccomplementary goods are goods that are used together and demanded together. If the price of accelerator falls and, as a military issue you drive your car more often, the extra driving increases your demand for motor crude. Thus, gasoline and motor oil are jointly demanded they are compliments. So it is with ham and eggs, tuition and text edition books, movies and popcorn, cameras and films.When two products are compliments, the price of one good and demand for the other good move in op posite directions. Unrelated goods The vast legal age of goods that are not related to one another are called case-by-case goods. Examples include butter and golf balls, potatoes and automobiles, and bananas and wrist watches. A change in the price of one has little or no effect on the demand for the other. 3. 1. 5 Expectations Changes in consumer expectations may shift demand. A freshly formed expectation of higher future prices may cause consumers to buy now in order to beat the anticipated price rises, thus increasing current demand.Similarly, a change in expectations relating to future product availability may affect current demand. change in demand is to be distinguished with change in quantity demanded. A change in demand is a shift of the demand curve to the right (an increase in demand) or to the left (a decrease in demand). A change in quantity demanded is a movement from one point to another point, from one price quantity combination to another on a fixed demand schedul e or demand curve. In summary, an increase in demand may be caused by the following factors A favourable change in consumer tastes An increase in the number of buyers Rising incomes if the product is a normal good Falling incomes if the product is an inferior good An increase of the price of a substitute good A decrease in the price of a complimentary good A new consumer expectation that either prices or income will be higher in the future. 3. 2 The theory of supply While we have discussed some of the conditions under which consumers are willing , and able, to purchase quantities of a detail good or service, we also need to say something about the willingness of producers to produce those very same goods and services.This is discussed by the law of supply. The law asserts that quantity supplied of a good or service is directly related to the selling price, ceteris paribus. 3. 3 The theory of production The theory of production is centered around the concept of production function. A production function relates the maximum quantity of output that can be produced from precondition amounts of various inputs for a given technology. It is a technological relation between what is fed into the productive apparatus by way of inputs of factor services and what is turned out by way of product.The production function is mathematically expressed as Q=q(L,K), Where Q is tons of output per day, L is labour days employed, and K is units of capital services( e. g. , machine days) used. In varying the combinations of the factor inputs the organisation has to consider three distinct types of decisions decisions to be made over the hornswoggle work, decisions to be made over the long run and decisions to be made over the very long run. The short run is defined as the period of time over which the inputs of some factors, called fixed factors, cannot be varied.The factor that is fixed in the short run is usually an element of capital( such as plant and equipment), but capacit y be land, or the service of solicitude, or even the supply of delicate labour. In the short run, production must be varied by changing the quantities used of those inputs that can be varied these are called variable quantity factors. It worth to take note here that the short run does not correspond to a fixed time period, it is a matter of fact. The long run is defined as the period long enough for the inputs of all factors of production to be varied, but not so long that basic technology of production changes.In our simple two factor example above, the firm varies q in the long run by varying L and K. The importance of the long run in the production theory is that it corresponds to the blot facing the firm when it planning to go into business, or to expand or contract the scale of its operations. The very long run is concerned with situations in which the technological possibilities open to the firm are subject to change, leading to new and im turn up products and new methods of production. 3. 4 The theory of price( in government)The decision-taking units in economic theory are households for demand, firms for supply, and central authorities for government regulation and control. precondition the resources at their command, each household is assumed to act consistently to maximize its satisfaction, and each firm is assumed to act consistently to maximise its profits. 3. 5 The theory of consumer behaviour In addition to explaining the law of demand, the idea of decrease marginal utility explains how consumers allocate their money incomes among the many goods and services available for purchase.The typical consumers situation has the following dimensions 3. 5. 1 Rational behaviour The consumer is a rational person, who tries to use his or her money income to derive the greatest amount of satisfaction, or utility, from it. Consumers want to get the most of their money or, technically, to maximize their complete utility. They engage in a rational behaviour . 3. 5. 2 Preferences Each consumer has cleared preferences for certain of the goods and services thathat are available in the market.It is assumed that buyers as well have a good idea of how often marginal utility they will get from successful units of the various products they might purchase. 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint At any point in time the consumer has a fixed, limited amount of money income. Since each consumer supplies a mortal amount of human and property resources to society, he or she earns only limited income. Thus, every consumer faces what economists call a figure constraint(budget limitation), even those who earn millions of dollars a year. f course budget constraint are more grievous to consumers with average incomes than for those with extraordinarily high incomes. 3. 5. 4 Prices Goods are scarce sexual relation to the demand for them, so every good carries a price tag. We assume that price tags are not affected by the amounts of specific goods each person buys. The consumer cannot buy everything wanted. So, the consumer must compromise he must choose the most satisfying mix of goods and services. Different individuals will choose different mixes. . 0 managerial Economics and Economic Theories Most decisions made by managers usually involve questions of resource allocation within the organisation in both the short and the long run. In the short run, a manager may be concerned in estimating demand and cost relationship to make decisions about the price to charge for a product and the quantity of output to produce. The areas of microeconomics dealing with demand theory of cost and production are obvious useful in making decision on such matters.Macroeconomic theory also enters into decision making when a manager attempt to forecast future demand based on forces influencing the boilersuit economy. In the long run, decisions must be made about expanding or contracting production and distribution facilities, developing and marketing new product s, and possibly acquiring other firms. Basically, these decisions require the organisation to make capital wasting disease that is, pulmonary tuberculosis made in the current period that are judge to yield returns in future periods.Economists have developed a theory of capital budgeting that can be used in deciding whether to constrict specific capital spendings. It is therefore not realistic to think that a firm will make decisions based on one theory or a combination of two. Application of economic theories is an issue which depends on each case. There may be cases which are not complex, these may be simple decisions to be made by organisation which are not faced with constraints. 4. 1 General decision-making Process The ability to make good decisions is the key to successful managerial performance.All decision making shares several common elements. First, the decision maker must rise or identify the objectives of the organization. The failure to identify organizational obje ctives correctly can result in the complete rejection of an otherwise well-conceived and well use plan. Generally, economic decision-making process involves the following steps 1. Establish and/or identify Objectives 2. Define the problem 3. Identify possible alternative solutions 4. Evaluate alternatives and select the topper alternative . Implement and monitor the decision. 5. 0 General overview of the office of the Attorney General Article 59(1) of the Constitution of the united Republic of Tanzania establishes the office of the Attorney General. It states there shall be an Attorney General for the political relation of the join Republic, who in accompanying articles of this constitution shall be referred to as the Attorney-General who shall be appointed by the president. Thus, the office of the Attorney General is perfectly established.The constitution also prescribe the main role and function of the Attorney General in article 59(3). It provides the Attorney General sha ll be the adviser of the politics of the unify Republic on legal matters and for that purpose he shall be responsible for advising the Government on all legal matters, and to discharge any other functions pertaining to or machine-accessible with law which are referred or assigned to him by the president and also to discharge such other duties or functions which shall be entrusted to him by this constitution or by any law 5. Statutory functions of The Attorney General As the powers and functions of the Attorney General are derived from the constitution it is undisputed fact that decision making in this office is manoeuver by law. In accordance with the Attorney General(Discharge of duties and functions) Act prescribe the following as functions of the Attorney General (a)To advise the Government on legal matters b)To institute and occupy criminal cases in courts of law and defend criminal appeals, revisions and applications on behalf of the United Republic (c)To litigate civil ca ses including constitutional and human rights matters on behalf of the Government (d)To draft and vet legislative instruments, translate and revise legislation (e)To research, hit the books and advice the Government on constitutional and human rights matters (f)To represent the Government in civil and criminal matters (g)To represent the government in International Arbitration, intermediation and negotiations of contacts, Government Loans and international agreements. . 0 Decision-making centres under the Office of the Attorney General From the organisation structure of the ministry of justice and constitutional affairs(attached as appendix) the following are main subdivisions or directorates Functional subdivisions Public Prosecutions Division Civil and International Law Division Legislative Division Constitutional Affairs and benignant Rights Division Supporting plane sections Administrative and Personnel Division Policy, planning and culture Services Division 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the Attorney General (a)Statutory decisionsIn making statutory decisions the decision makers are guided by law as to which option to take and the procedure of making the decision. For instance, the decision to prosecute a criminal is both legal and economical but much consideration is given to legal. The criminals have to be prosecuted though the cost associated with prosecution may be very high. In these decisions the decision makers are less flexible. Thus, economic theories are given consideration at the level when the Government as a whole makes a decision of allocating its resources in accordance to preference of the services to offer to the citizens. b)Economic decisions Most of the economic decisions of the Attorney Generals Office are based on the budget which is authorize by the parliament. Generally the budget is of two types of expendings, development ingestion and recurrent expenditure. Development expenditure In the development expenditure each pl ane section proposes the development activities which it intends to implement in the next financial year. Each department is categorised as a vote and identified by vote number. close to department have divisions which are mandated to control their funds, these are categorised as sub-votes.As between various development requirements the department must choose which interprets require immediate executing, this is because each department has more demands of these expenditures, however, the funds allocated by the parliament in each year are meagre. The decisions for development expenditure are made by top centering of each department, each department being led by its hollow functions. Some of the expenditures which are development include rehabilitation of offices, purchase of office furniture, computers, motor vehicles, etc.The foresaid expenditures are those financed solely by the government. There are expenditure which are financed by donors, these are also divided in two cat egories basket funding and project funding. Basket funding are donations by donor countries which are to the general budget of the government. Each donor country individually or in groups contribute to the budget without specifying the project or activities which they wish to assist. The decision as how to spend the money is left to the government through normal budget process.Project funding is done by donor countries(development partners) whether individually or in groups who are interested to assist in specific area which they are interested. There are two main development projects in the ministry of constitutional affairs and justice, these are the Legal Sector Reform Programme(LSRP) and the Tackling of Corruption Programme(TCP). In these programmes the decisions of what activities to be undertaken in each is a prior bargaining between the Government of the United Republic and the development partners.Usually the agreement in the form of scroll of understanding(MOU) which stipu lates the scope and focus of the project and the role of each party. The AGs Office being one of the beneficiary of these project is responsible for implementation and monitoring of the progress. In the course of implementation and monitoring economic theories have to be applied. These theories include demand and supply and consumer behaviour. Generally development expenditure are determined by the government at top level and utilize by the departments. There is very little influence of the management of departments in this type of expenditure. hus, at this level application of economic theories is so indirect as most of the decision are made top-bottom. repeated expenditure The budget process of the government on recurrent expenditure does not differ much from development expenditure but there is a slight variation. While the great part of development budget is decided by the top level of the government recurrent expenditure is in the ambit of management of each department. From t he commence to the implementation of the budget there are various decisions which are frequently made by departments. However, the decision made must confine to other liming factors.When the budget of the ministry has been clear by the parliament each department has to prepare its action plan which is sent to the ministry of finance. The action plan enables the ministry of finance to determine amounts of money which should be issued by way of exchequer issues to each department. An action plan is a timeframe based plan for implanting the budget(see appendix). In the action plan management of each department has to make an decisions on the following issues (a)Activities which are to be implemented in each quarter, the department may choose an activity to be implemented in the 1st, 2nd , 3rd or 4th quarter.Some of the activities may be spread evenly in all the 4 quarters. The decision as to which quarter an activity should be carried is very critical due to the following reasons Pr ices of goods and services may rise and affect the budget adversely Funds may not be available at the time when the goods or services are needed Unexpected matter or state may occur. (b)Activities which are not to be implemented as caused by changes in the approved budget (c)Activities which may require application for approval of reallocation and timing of the same. 6. The role of Public Procurement Act, 2007 in decision-making and application economic theories Enactment of the Public Procurement Act, 2007 has made the application of the theories of demand and supply and theory of consumer behaviour to be feasible. The law makes it a mandatory requirement to follow certain procedures when purchasing goods and services for public offices. Section 28(1) requires each ministry, independent department of Government, Region, District and others to establish a play board for procurement of goods, services and works. Paragraph 4(1) of Government Notice No. 7 states the rationale of the law as the public procurement policies are based on the need to make the best possible use of public funds, whilst conducting all procurement with honesty and beauteousness. Paragraph 4(2)(a) goes further to state that all public officers and members of the public and members of the tender boards who are undertaking or approving procurement shall be guided the following basic considerations of the public procurement policy- The need for economy and efficiency in the use of public funds and in the implementation of projects including the cooking of related goods and services. The best interests of a public authority, in full-grown all eligible suppliers, contractors, and service providers equal opportunities to compete in providing goods or executing works or providing services. The importance of integrity, accountability, fairness and transparency in the procurement process. To come across the above objectives the law requires that tenders are awarded by way of competitive tende ring in which suppliers, contractors or consultants are invited by the procuring entity to compete with each other in submitting priced tenders for goods, works or services.By providing these legal requirements the enhances the application of economic theories in public procurement. Just as demand theory states that other factors remaining constant a consumer will increase quantity of goods demanded when its price is lower, Public procurement Act requires among other things to select the lowest bidder( assuming other things are equal to all bidders, for instance superior and time of supply) The process of budgeting in the Government is both top-down and bottom-top depending on the stage of the budget.The process starts by the Ministry of finance(MoF) issuing budget guidelines and instruction which are to be followed by all Ministries and departments when preparing the budget. Included in the guidelines are government priorities in the financial year in reference. Budget for the AG s Office is proposed for both the development and recurrent expenditure is done in departments on the following sequences (i)Budget guidelines, budget ceiling and instructions issued by the Ministry of Finance (ii)Top Management of the ministry discusses the guidelines and priorities to synchronise with the ministrys priorities. iii)The top management of AGs Office make budget strategies and sets the way forward. (iv)Instructions to the Heads of departments are issued for implementation of the guidelines, general government priorities and ministerial priorities. (v)Head of departments implements the above by proposing their expenditures in the year under reference. 6. 3 Other decisions 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions Generally all matters related to staff requirements of any government office are dealt with the Presidents office Public Service office.When the Attorney Generals Office is need of staff of a certain category, it will have to declare the needs to this office. Practice ha s shown that the Public Service Office will see the needs and if satisfied will grant a permission to the department to employ subject to the given conditions. Thus, the room to make decision is not based on the application of the production theory, theory of demand but on policies of the government on employment.For instance, salaries payable are not based on the demand and supply for labour but on what are the government scales of salaries. 6. 3. 2 Training decisions Training of staff in the office of Attorney General is based on the tuition plan. The training plan shows the training needs of all employees and proposed period of training. It is from this plan that each department has to ensure that it includes in its budget funds for training staff. Practice has proved that the plan is hardly implemented due to the fact that funds allocated to training are always inadequate.This poses a problem as to what criterion will be used to select employees to attend training. There is no set criterion for this aspect and remains to be a challenge. 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney General and budget constraint When budget of the ministry of constitutional affairs is approved by the parliament implementation does not start until the ministry of finance disburses funds by way of exchequer issues. It from exchequer issues that the ministry and its departments can start spending.Release of funds by the Ministry of Finance is made periodic and the amount depends on tax collections in the preceding month. It is therefore spare that the funds availed to each ministry and department is not necessarily equivalent to the approved budget, in most of the times is less than the budget(see appendix). This compels the ministry or the department to revisit its decisions which were based on approved budget. In this regard some of the decisions are not based economic theories, but on other factors, e. g. , political and social factors.Global financial crisis an d economic crisis has contributed to the above mentioned problem by causing a depression in the business sector which has a negative conflict on tax gross. Application of economic theories to make decisions is done both by the top government management and also departmental management. At the government levels directives are issued to cut down expenditures which are deemed not necessary. For instance in the year 2007, the Prime minister issued a directive which restricted government spending on workshops, seminars and unnecessary conferences.In 2008, the government restricted purchase of expensive vehicles. All these measures were aimed at ensuring that the scarce resources of the government are directed towards provision of essential services. This is linked to the theory of consumer behavior and the government as a consumer acts rationally and wisely in spending taxpayers money. resemblingwise, all departments after having been allocated with monthly funds less than their budget s are expected to act rationally by spending money in areas where they will maximize the value for money.They are automatically required to revisit their needs in the budget and rescale the preferences. 7. 0 Conclusion Managerial economics as a science is used as a road-map to show and aid decision makers in arriving at optimal decisions given various constraints. In its application managerial economics uses microeconomics principles and economics theories. Managerial economics is mostly applicable to risk analysis, production analysis, pricing analysis, and capital budgeting. However, practical life tells that almost all businesses apply managerial economics in one way or another.Managerial economics is used and applied in both profit-making and non- profit making organisations. While the objective of profit making entities is to maximize profit the objective of non-profit making entities is to achieve and maximise the objectives for their establishment. The government as an instit ution is also faced with economical and social dilemma some of which need application of managerial economics. Like any other institution, the government is faced with the problem of limited resources against boundless wants. The resources in the orm of capital, Land, Labour, and Management are not enough to satisfy an timeless list of their uses. In addition to this problem the world is operating in uncertainty, if decisions are made without accommodating the risk component adverse results are likely to happen. Examples of uncertainties which have impact government resources in Tanzania include galvanic power crisis which compelled the government to incur cost to buy fuel for IPTL(Independent origin Tanzania Ltd) power plant. The crisis was erroneously not anticipated and therefore not pre-planned.This has impacted negatively government budget as it had to forgo some of the economic and social activities which were envisaged to be carried in the financial year 2009/2010. Explos ion of bombs at Mbagala military camp caused loss of lives and properties of citizens and caused injuries and mental shock of thousands of Dar-es-salaam residents. The government made compensation for damaged property. All these events were likely to be foreseen and the risks minimised or eliminated. excreting or minimization of these risks entails using techniques under managerial economics(risk analysis).Together with uncertainties which the government can analyse using managerial economics as above there are uncertainties which are beyond the control of the government. For instance, the global financial crisis (GFC) started in the United States of America in the second half of 2007. The crisis was prompted by increase defaults in subprime mortgages. The crisis spread all over the world and has much impacted developing countries than others. Impacts include loss of employment due to blocking of businesses, loss of revenue and decline in new investments.Despite the importance and use of economic theories in decision-making process, the government sometimes use non economic factors to make decisions. This is so because according to the nature of some of the activities of the government and laws and rules presidency the same. For instance, a decision to build a school in a certain area does not depend on expected revenue in the form of fees but the factor will be provision of education services. Thus, in some of the problems economic theories do not apply.The theory which assumes that the objective of the firm is to maximise profit does not apply to government because its existence does not depend on profit but on welfare of the people. Decisions of the office of the Attorney General apart from applying managerial economics, have to be in line with government policies and in some aspects with the law governing such decisions. It therefore important for decision makers in the governments and its department to make sure that not only policies and laws are cons idered in making decisions, they should make sure managerial economics together with applicable economic theories are taken on board.References McMconnell, C. R and Brue, S. L,(2005) Economics Principles, Problems, and Policies (16th edn). McGraw-Hill Companies, inc. , New York. McGuigan, J. R. , Moyer, R. C, etal (2005), Managerial Economics Application, Strategy and Tactics. (10th edn), United States of America. Lipsey, R. G, An Introduction to Positive Economics. (6th edn), Butler &038 tanner Ltd, London Jehovaness, A. ,(2009), The Impact of Global financial Crisis on Developing Countries.A paper presented in the seminar on International Accounting Standards and Global Financial Crisis, 28th March, Dar es Salaam. Ngowi, H. P. (20100. The current Global Financial and Economic Crisis and its impact on Africa. A paper for the Medals for Research on Development at the Eleventh Annual Global Development Conference, Prague, Czech Republic. The Constitution of the United Republic of T anzania The Public Procurement Act, 2007