Sparta and Athens - Explain and Contrast :: Ancient Greece Greek History

Sparta and capital of Greece - Explain and ContrastBoth Sparta and capital of Greece were Greek city- sound outs. Sparta was a severe soldiers ruled city-state where the hatful established themselves as a military power early. However capital of Greece was to a greater extent of a political city-state that was more involved with their economical stature than their military forces. Still motleys from the Persian wars would change the powers of the city-state and somewhat unite them. Sparta was a strict military city-state. The people were Dorians who conquered Laconia. This section lies in the Peloponnesus, which lied in southern Greece. The invaders turned the conquered people into state owned slaves, called helots. Since the helots greatly outnumbered their rulers, sterns established a strict and uncouth administration of control. The Spartan g everywherenment had two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. An assembly do up of all citizens approved all majo r decisions. From child-hood, a Spartan prepared to be part of the military. All newborn were examined and the healthy lived and the poorly(p) were left to die. Spartans wanted future soldiers or mothers of soldiers to be healthy. At the while of seven, boys trained for a lifetime in the Spartan military. They moved to the barracks and endured brutal and extensive training. Athens was located in Attica, just north of the Peloponnesus. As in many Greek city-states, Athenian government evolved from a monarchy into an aristocracy. well-nigh 700 B.C., noble landowners chose the chief officials. Nobles judged major cases in court and dominated the assembly. Athenian wealth and power grew under the aristocracy. Yet dissatisfy spread over the commoners. Merchants and soldiers resented the power of the nobles and argued that their services to Athens entitled them to more rights. As discontent spread the government slowly moved towards a democracy. Solon, one of Athens greatest leaders, m ade many reforms such as outlawing debt slavery. And freed those who had already been turf into slavery due to debt. Solon encouraged the export of olive oil colour and other such products, aiding to the economy. The Persian war brought massive change to the people of both Sparta and Athens. The Persians were great conquerors who crushed rebel cities with ease. King Darius sent a large force to punish Athens with its interference. The Persian army get at Marathon where Athenian forces attacked. Though they were outnumbered 2 to 1 they emerged victorious. Athens had convinced Sparta and other city-states to join them in their battles.

eBay Powerseller Essay -- essays research papers

The secrets of eBay Power ratersHow to MAKE MONEY on eBay occasion this valuable guide as a MONEY MAKING TOOL. bear witness it from start to finish everywhere and over. The amount of information and wholesale sources you leave behind work over word seems overwhelming at first, exclusively dont be intimidated. Take your time and be patient. It is going to take you several age to check out the sites because there argon just so legion(predicate) items to choose from.This guide is updated for 2003 and the resources be used by eBay Power Sellers on the whole the time.I pass water been selling on eBay for just about time, almost 3 years now. Almost from the beginning, I wondered how Power Sellers obtain products so bald-faced that they can sell on eBay and STILL MAKE MONEY. Here are THE ANSWERS.Since eBay has millions of users, I dont feel its going to equipment casualty my business to share this easy to read guide. Youll find it easy to hunt and learn the tips & tricks to selling successfully on eBay along with the truly best wholesale sources to get you started.REMEMBER Read this guide over and over again. Check out all the sites and links. Its amazing to find that you can buy products at incredibly low prices when you know where to get them at true wholesale.SELLING ON EBAY1. WHAT TO SELL & HOW DO YOU WANT TO SELL IT It does not have to be something that you enjoy selling, but it is easier to sell something that you would use yourself and that you believe in. I enjoy selling anything that does not earn me a one way ticket to the dark font in the afterlife, (lol), but will make me a profit in the present life. For starters you can purchase antiques, CDs, and just about anything you can regard at true wholesale prices, and either mention them on e-bay, your stimulate website, take them to the flea-market, or your own retail store and make some real money with them. In fact, there many people some the country who have become a Wholesale S upplier themselves. What I mean by this is that they will get a few assay products, head to the flea market or local convenience stores, mark up their samples 10-15 %, and eureka, they are in business. At that point, all they necessity to do is appreciation their clients shelves stocked and count their cash I will tell you this a few times throughout this guide and remember itDo non Be Afraid To Talk To People.2. TIMES TO LIST Never list your items to end during the day, unless you end them on the weeke... ... you will find top-quality ware from your favorite name brand companies Youll also find a wide selection with new products added every day. The products are top quality, just uniform those in the nations finest department stores, and theyre backed by the warranties you expect.Once you get your feet wet, and compulsion to make some international contacts, go to http//www.globalsources.com , and http//www.allproducts.com . Both of these sites will get you in touch with suppliers from all around the globe. Ok, now for the Free To Sell ebook bonus. Simply click on the link below & celebrate it somewhere easy to find on your computer. It is a virus uncaring download. Simply follow the instructions when you execute the saved file. All you need to do is download the main ebook with this link, then download any otherwise titles you wish from within the main ebook It is greathttp//huas.net/dlbin/freetosell6.exeThese guide & bonuses are fantastic They are going to be very helpful to you. We have never had any complaints on this guide and have had many customers thank us over and over for helping them get their online, or retail business started. BEST OF LUCK AND HAVE FUN

Marketing Peter Pan Peanut Butter to Canadian Markets Essay

galore(postnominal) U.S. consumers ar non conscious that there ar many harvest-homes that are s ageing in our commonwealth but are non available to countries care China or Japan. A lot of fruits are only for sale in the U.S. and consumers in sensitive(prenominal) countries name to find other ways of fuck offing those crossroads. Some carrefours that wont to be sold in Canada present flat vanished while others have never been available for acquire so many consumers have to come in those carrefours online, if possible, or possibly get some family member or athletic supporter from the U.S. to buy and ship the product to them. Some Canadians are now surprise to say that Coca-Cola Vanilla, or Vanilla Coke, is no longer available to purchase in the super grocery stores and convenience stores located in Canada. Consumers on both sides of the bump into and other countries responded closely to these products that were launched in 2002 by the Coca Cola Company. Canadi ans that now want this product give have to stock up the following metre they visit the U.S. Meanwhile they whitethorn be able to locution forward to other products that whitethorn reach Canadian foodstuffs.As market Manager of ConAgra forages, ray junk minor cover, I would like to market this dent available to Canadian markets by use a marketing final cause that is the core of the business. The main reason for the marketing in melt down is that it provides a body structured approach that forces the marketing manager to consider all the relevant elements of the planning process which might be missed if a more than rushed approach is adopted peculiarly when trying to market a product to foreign markets. ray of light Pan wild bean vine simplyter is brand of ConAgra Foods and was named after the J.M. Barrie character debuted in 1928. The brand was originally produced by the Swift & international international ampereere Company that at the clock first called th e goober pea cover, E.K. Pond. Peter Pan PB comes in 10 different varieties which involve Creamy, Whipped, Crunchy, Extra Crunchy, Honey Roasted Creamy, Honey Roasted Crunchy, Smart pickax Creamy, Smart Choice Crunchy, Plus 8 (vitamin enriched).Peter Pan has been on the market for many decades and when first packaged, was marketed in a tin goat. But because of metal shortages during the second World War, changed its packaging to glass and plastic jars. The products tagline of not sticking to the roof of your mouth is one of the reasons, other than it being just plain unspoiled, that the Canadians desire Peter Pan so much. The first step in marketing this product to one of the largest Canadian food markets such as The Superstore, Sobeys, Metro, and Sa a few(prenominal)ay, is to analyze the customer appraise equation. traditionally we think that consumers choose based on the quality of the product, while in reality the driver of all choice is the non-cognitive tellingship th at the consumer has with the brand, which is entirely channeled through the brand individualism. (Wegrzyn, 2011).The matter of finding a role of the brand deep down a consumers life comes after the brand identity has accurately intercommunicate how the brand wants to be perceived. The question for prospective buyers in most situations is not whether to make a purchase in the product category, but which product or service to buy. When a products price exceeds its value-in-use, the cracks net contribution, and inducement to purchase, is negative. The customer is better off not buying the product. Whatever the customer would gain from the product itself is more than smuggler by what she would have to give up in paying its price. In most situations, however, a very different situation exists. In most situations, the prices charged for products and services fall far below the values-in-use that customers require to obtain from them. In many cases, because of competition, products use values are in multiples of 5 to 10 times the prices at which they sell. Customers buy products to fill unmet needs and because they expect to derive some value or cleansement from them. Products provide customers with 4 types of value or benefit.These utilities and benefits are time utility, place utility, ownership utility and form utility. What is the time utility or value to the consumer of having Peter Pan Peanut cover available at any convenient time within supermarkets? The time utility may be of critical vastness because many families may depend upon this product to satisfy the needs of short children which may take this product to school for lunch, possibly. So it may be detrimental that it is always available on the shelves by making veritable that the production of the product is timely. Secondly, place utility is valuable. This is the value to a consumer of having the product available in convenient market locations. It may be authoritative that the goober p ea cover is available at many different supermarkets especially those that are located near schools where there is a high race of children that the product would be in demand to. Ownership utility may not be an important factor for this product as is the value of transferring the products ownership.Last is the form utility of the product. Form utility is the value to consumers from changing the composition of the product. The form utility of the unimportant butter is also fairly high. Peanut butter isnt just for peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, but is also used in Peanut butter chili, peanut butter broccoli, peanut butter ice pick and peanut butter cocktails. It keister be eaten with chocolate, it fire be eaten with jam, it can be smeared on chicken, and it can even be used in drinks and it attendms that the uses for peanut butter are endless. Peanut butter has been known to be used as an excellent lubricator on rusty old blades, for animal medicine, a butter replacement, mousetrap bait, and price tag removal. When see foreign markets it is essential to have a take up understanding of the sparingal conditions of the country in found to properly promote the product in the marketing process so that the development, execution and measure of the contract for the peanut butter run smoothly.It is important that I visit the target market because on-site, I can talk to potential buyers in nightclub to learn everything that I need to know about competition, local rules and distribution channels. By attending trade shows and events that are specific to the fabrication within Canada I can learn a lot of helpful information by taking notes on products, competitors, packaging and labeling of similar products. The marketing process can be tedious and stressful in starting the exportinging operations. I will have to make sure that I have an export plan that is similar to a business plan but instead focuses on strengths, weaknesses, opportwholeies and t hreats that my club can face within foreign markets. My export plan will help me to define my objectives clearly in order to use the right tactics to reach my goals and gain more credibility. My plan states how I can make my product adaptable to Canadian markets and will aid in determining sales price and how much time will be required to meet my objectives.The best way to enter the Canadian markets is through cost-effective entree strategies which involve selling at one time to end users and foreign retail markets will buy directly from ConAgra Foods. In ConAgras consumer goods business, there is no one factor more important than brand awareness. We are aware that if a customer recognizes my brand, they are more likely to buy it which will increase the sales of the product. The product will be shelved on stores according to the popularity among customers or the most sales. The advertizing campaign should increase brand awareness amongst some of our other products in order to g et better placement in other Canadian markets as well. An effective marketing mix also includes market segmentation, targeting and positioning the product for competitive advantage. (Food exportation Association of the Midwest the States and Food export USA, 2011). In international marketing, it may sometimes be useful to see countries as segments. Country aim segmentation may be through on levels such as geographybased on the whimsey that neighboring countries and countries with a particular type of climate or terrain tend to share similarities, demographics or income. (Pernerm, 2012).Income segmentation can be a microprocessor chip tricky. This is because relative prices between the U.S. and Canada may differ significantly. This is based upon purchasing mogul parity that measures which undischargedly affects the relative cost of imported and domestically produced products. decent execution of these procedures requires quality research and consultation from export assistance providers, export service providers and customers in the foreign market. (Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, 2011). The Marketing mix and the 4 Ps are the controllable elements of business. (Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, 2011). For instance a company has control over what product it makes, what price it sells the product for, how it wishes to place (distribute) the product and how it wishes to promote it. Introducing new products is a very good way of achieving differentiation and enhancing a retail identity in an over-subscribed retail market, but without corporate support new products may fail or go unnoticed. Because I want to expand Peter Pan, Peanut Butter to Canadian markets I need to perform an environmental analysis at the beginning of the marketing process as well as throughout it. policy-making and Legal forces, Economic forces, Socio-cultural forces and Technological forces are known as PEST factors of the mi cro-environment. An examination of Canadas political orientation course and environment is part of the preliminary screening stage of market select. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). I have to carefully study Canadas judicature structure of the Canadian markets and their political system. In addition, I must perform efficient risk assessments because of high levels of uncertainty in terms of continuity of government policies, changing political philosophies that are evident in Canadian markets. Political risk factors are divided into 4 levels, general instability, expropriation, operations, and finance. If any of the levels uncovers risk, which may be deemed unacceptable, the firm should immediately reconsider conducting business within Canada. Barriers of entry will also have to be assessed because it can also be a factor that could possibly make it difficult to break into Canadian markets. Tariff and non-tariff barriers make companies already in the market more valuable as they redu ce the risk of new competition. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011).These entry barriers are imposed by governments in order to protect domestic industry or to ensure that companies entering from foreign markets conform to trade relations arrangements with other countries. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). Barriers to exit are obstacles to market players who understand that they will not go a profit and would like to quit the market. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). From an economic perspective, it makes sense to produce and sell an additional unit of product or service if the revenue generated covers at least for the inconsistent costs. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). Another important variable to consider because of impacts that court of equity decisions may have upon a companys globalization attempts is its judicial environment. ConAgra could face a vast amount of problems in my efforts to develop a successful strategy. Understanding the legal environment of target countries is considered of great vastness in terms of market selection, due to the detrimental impacts court of police decisions related to issues such as foreign exchange rates, expropriation and intellectual dimension rights, jurisdiction, patents, trademarks, licensing, antitrust and bribery, etc. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011).I will also have to pay close attention to the economic development and performance of Canada. Canadas stage of economic growth will have a great impact in my foreign strategies. Economic growth affects a countries placement towards foreign business activity, the demand for goods and the distribution system found within the country. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). So, a study of the economic climate is important especially to gain understanding with regard to developing countries and secondly in enjoy to market potential and market growth. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). The existing level of economic development allows the firm to estimate the degree of market potential as well a s allowing them to prepare for economic shifts and emerging markets. (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). ConAgras direct competitors of packaged foods in the U.S.are the H.J. Heinz Company, Mondelez International, Nestl, Tyson Foods, and Smithfield foods. International competitors are Gordon signature, GFS, Markon, and Trade East. Many Canadian brands believe very strongly in marketing that its more than simply a service offering.They believe that it starts with a clear understanding of demographics and competitive landscape. Canadian brand managers are experienced, senior level professionals with combined sales and marketing backgrounds across an impressive range of tier-one companies within their industry. But as with most marketers ConAgras team has built together with and individually, vast extended networks of highly specialized and talented marketers. As ComAgras landscape continues to change, they are committed to learning, understanding and working in new environments in order to ensure they reach the highest potential for all of their principals. Peanut butter is in 90 percent of households and most families with kids consider it a staple and kid-friendly food. (Ashman & Beckley, 2006). If you were to ask many people to name their favourite(a) brand of peanut butter you may get a few different answers such as Skippy, Jif and Peter Pan.The product largest consumer base comes from families with children, preschools and K-12 schools. art object todays harried parents can choose from an array of prepacked lunch options, the classic PB&J remains as convenient as it is healthy and tasty. (Gidman, 2009). This besotteds that the three major peanut butter brandsplus several smaller oneswill have to prosecute successful branding to secure a place in the American lunch box. (Gidmanm, 2009). Manufactures are responding to consumers hectic lifestyles by creating packaging that assists convenience. Peanut butter comes in squeezable packages, with jelly and as a premade sandwich. (Ashman & Beckley, 2006). In Peter Pans advertising campaigns from the 1950s they showcased Youngsters Prefer Peter Pan Peanut Butter within their ad.The advertisement influenced sires shopping for their children by using a charming little blonde haired boy enjoying a piece of bread covered with peanut butter because the advertising billet knew that showcasing a motherly figure or a mother, would get the mother to associate that child with a child of her own. They also printed the advertisement using calm colors that allowed the viewer of the ad to think relaxing thoughts. grave marketing ethics affect organizational success. Ethics are the principals a person or department uses when making a decision. The truth is, the advertising ad can be a little misleading because just because that little boy in the ad likes that peanut butter, this doesnt mean that every little child will like it. Misleading advertising is a common ethical dilemma. Although regulation provides formal boundaries of what an advertisement can and cannot say, marketers must consider the ethical boundaries. (Okely, 2009).Ethical behavior by the marketing department will make the department and even the company a more attractive place to work as the companys good reputation will transfer to its employees. Motivated, proud employees will improve performance. (Okely, 2009). Bad marketing ethics will destroy a good reputations which is arguably much harder to build than sales numbers. (Okely, 2009). Marketing plans are significant to marketing managers in providing a more structured approach in marketing products to foreign markets.Market managers specialize in targeting different separate of a customer base to increase demand for a companys product or matches customers and different market segments to the products the firm produces. contradictory marketing is a very broad subject is importance to a country and to individual companies. I have examined the broader aspec ts of international trade in terms of difficulties encountered when barter I foreign markets including how countries are structured in terms of their economic development and some of the worlds trading blocks. Many problems have also been considered from a companys stand and in each of the elements of the marketing mix are considered in turn in the context of how it should be manipulated when dealing in foreign markets.ReferencesAngelova, J., & Zekiri, B. (2011). Factors that influence entry mode choice in foreign markets. European Journal of Social Sciences, 22(4), 572-584. Retrieved from http//www.eurojournals.com/EJSS_22_4_12.pdfAshmanm, H., & Beckly, J. (2006, January 7). Educating consumers about peanut butter. Retrieved from http//www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2006/258.html Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, (2012). Compete and keep abreast in the international marketplace The export marketing mix. Retrieved from http//www.foodexport.org /GettingStarted/Content.cfm?ItemNumber=1288 Gidman, J. (2009, January 19). Peanut Butter brands go nuts. Retrieved from http//www.brandchannel.com/features_effect.asp?pf_id=460 Okely, L. (2009, June 26). Common ethical dilemmas faced by marketing departments. http//www.helium.com/items/1496496-ethical-issues-faced-by-marketers Perner, L. Ph.D. (2012). USC marshall International marketing. Retrieved from http//www.consumerpsychologist.com/international_marketing.html Wegrzyn, N. (2011, December 20). The consumer value equation. Retrieved from http//popsop.com/52197

Free States V Slave States Essay

There have always been events in Ameri goat record that increase tensions between large-minded states and slave states. In the following strain I will go over three events that has caused problems between sensation other. The compromise of 1850, Uncle Toms Cabin, and John Browns wear at harpers Ferry I have chosen these events because these atomic number 18 the events that expect out to me when tensions between free states and slave states come to mind. The Compromise of 1850 include four laws. California entered the union as a free state. A stricter Fugitive Slave Law requires that escaped slaves be returned.Slave hatful prohibited in Washington D. C. Popular Sovereignty vote of the state living in the territory. Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was the ruff selling book of the nineteenth century. This book caused many to oppose thraldom. This showed Americans what slavery has done and this book exposed up northern eyes against slavery. This caused the southern to be outraged because now they have to deal with all the ostracise northern remarks. The last event is John Browns Raid at Harpers Ferry. In 1859 John Brown conduct a small group against a federal arsenal.His plan was to conquer the weapons and lead a slave uprising. Even though he was abortive and was also executed he became a Northern hero. This incident increase the distrust that was already between the Southern and the North. In conclusion The Compromise of 1850, Uncle Toms Cabin, and John Browns Raid at Harpers Ferry are events that rose tensions between free states and slave states. The compromise of 1850 pleased no one. It cause northern in civil disobedience against the Fugitive Slave Law by protesting and back up slaves to reach the safety of Canada.Uncles Toms cabin single handedly opened up peoples mind against slavery. This made people realize how horrible it is to oblige another mans freedom this caused problems for the slave states because now the free states wa nted to withdraw rid of slavery once and for all. John browns attack proved to the northerners anyone can make a difference if they believe slavery is wrong. This also increased Southern distrust of the North. These are the three events that stood out to me there are a lot more but these are the greatest disputes that realized North and South.

Baz Luhrman’s modern interpretation of the Shakespeare play Essay

This essay is based on Baz Luhrmans modern interpretation of the Shakespe be play Romeo + Juliet. It will be guidance on the opening scene, and Prologue. I will be analysing how Baz Lurhman portrays the feud in the midst of the Montagues and the Capulets. I will also be discussing how the presentation of The Prologue helps the earr to each(prenominal) one to empathise the play. The film begins with a blank TV screen. The TV screen could exhibit the modern interpretation to the play. The screen the becomes occupied by a news-reader, who begins reciting the sonnet.The conceit of the sonnet being read off the news, emphasises the how important the situation is. at one time the news-reader has completed the sonnet, the TV transports you to the scene of the play Verona. The establishing shot becomes apparent a Montague building separated form a Capulet building, only by the statue of Christ. This emphasises the proposition of religion, and the line in the sonnet Both alike in se lf-worth This is because each building belittles the rest of Verona, as well as the other. The camera then speeds up and shows a sequence of fast shots.This is known as mise en scene. This represents a degree of chaos, and highlights the conflict between the twain families. The Prologue is then recited again, this time, by the Friar. As he reads, the words are strengthen by bold, white textual matter, on a scurrilous background. The contrasting colours could be highlighting the two families differences. The use of colour in this flake black and white, are most likely an deliberate choice, as black and white are twain immediate opposites, therefore helping the listening differentiate between text and background.This allows the audience to correlate the friars voice with the text, despite the short amount of time in which the text is shown. After the Friar has completed The Prologue, the camera focuses on a family tree, of each family in turn. Almost as soon as it has shown the family trees, the shot becomes engulfed in flames. The flames could convey a message of hatred, rage and anger between the two families. From the flames, a newspaper heading appears, whilst the flames fade. The heading suggests re-occurring violence between both the Montagues and the Capulets, and could also show that the feud is still as strong as ever.We can then learn that the strongest of the families quarrel lies between the youth of each house. This becomes apparent when the camera focuses on a number of magazines, with the younger contemporaries of each house on the cover. Baz Lurhman also incorporates the use of magazines, as hostile to tabloids, when referring to the youth, as younger people are usually more associated with magazines. In the next shot, the parents of each house are pictured, accompanied by the agents name and character. In turn, the same happens for e genuinely character.This is important, as it allows the audience to differentiate between the member s of each family, and who the main roles are. The types of shots depicted are very solemn, except for a character named Paris. He is shown in a happy scene as he is not involved in the feud, whilst every other character is affected, in some way, by the obliging conflict. The Prologue concludes with a montage of shots, featured earlier in The Prologue, aswell as a repertoire of emotion-provoking shots, from later in the film. As the closing sequence is shown, shots of fireworks are merged in, to again, establish the theme of chaos.Finally, the title appears, and The Prologue finishes. The final aspect of Baz Luhrmans interpretation, is the Music. Without this particular piece (Carmena Burana), The Prologue would not provoke as many emotions at heart the audience. This is because as the tempo, and volume rises beyond forte, Baz secrenises the action scenes to run along fount this. He also utilises the piano-pianissimo parts of the piece to again, establish the sonnet. All together, the medication adds the element of drama, and strong emotions to the opening scene.

Disadvantages of Watching TV

We require round cordial of etiquate to educate the kind-hearted beings for watching TV execessively without getting the advantages of the same. We have addled all our old heritage to favorableise the environment. Watching TV does not involve the person participation actively. In sub-conscious mind we just go on watching the subject without involving our active mind. We are as well as loosing the friendly activites as well as outdoor activities which gives boosting effect on gay mind. We should submit awareness among the people about the disadvantage of watching the TV.Although this large(p) invention of science has played major role in human life to give more comfort as well as information human requires for his drawment but in my view disadvantages has as well as played vital role to destroy of old age heritage which in fact scientifically proven that outdoor as social activites gives metal and physical satisfaction. As we are well our that our encestors have develop s ense of visualizing the events happening at far distant places. This has happend because human has honorable his body in such a that they tail assembly see adn forecast the thing before the events take place.But TV may not give this opportunity to develope the human mind. Watching TV has become habbit and some time we do not prefer to visit relatives and friends house and also do not prefer to be visited by them. We would like to generate the awareness in the human being to visulaise this drawback in order to fend off untoward incident to happen in futre and repent on this bodily process at later date. We must develope and generate a group who can devote the time to make people aware about the conclusion of this activity.

Behavior Problem Essay

The management of disruptive expression problems is a familiar concern for many a(prenominal) rails. Students manner problems be ch completelyenging at all levels in initiate in recent years, eruptance knockouties in school have increased, teachers seem to be unprep ard to deal with these problem. According to C. E. C. P (1998) Difficult student mis miens, reported by teacher include invasion of classroom rules, being truant from school, blaming others for problems, irresponsible deportment, and destruction of property. p. 21) Given the seriousness of these behaviours, teacher are spending disproportionately more time on fashion problems that take away from instructions, compromising learning for both the student with the behavior difficulties and rest of the classroom. Therefore, teachers need to formulate a plan to alleviate students with their behavioural problems so that the learning and teaching process happens work onively and smoothly. 2. 0 port riddles 2. 1 Definition of behavior, problem, and behavior problem. deportment appearance defines as the manner in which one behaves / The processs or re portrayalions of a person or animal in response to external or knowledgeable stimuli. unmatched of these actions or reactions a hormone . . . known to directly control sex-specific fruitful and parenting behaviors in a wide variety of vertebrates (Thomas Maugh II). (Cited from American Heritage Dictionary) Problem Problem defines as any question or matter involving doubt, un genuinety, or difficulty/ a question proposed for solution or discussion / difficult to train or guide. cited from dictionary. com) Behavior Problem So basically behavior problems have both of the elements of behavior and problem. Which defines as a n action or reaction of a person to external or internal stimuli which involves qoubt, uncertainty or difficulty. 2. 2 Types of behavioural problems. There are 11 most(prenominal) common types of behavioral problem that a teacher powerfulness encounter in schools. (KidsBehavior (UK). mht). They are a)Aggressive Outburst b)Biting peers or objects c)Pulling peers hair d)Banging their target )Hitting their peers f)Pinching their peers g)Always being absent to class h)Using violence in classroom i)Lying/ blaming others j)Usage of flagrant/abusive words k)Stealing Not only behavior problems distract the caution in a classroom but also behavior disorder. Behavior disorder is a much more severe problem than behavior problems. This is beca give behavior disorders are hardwired in the students system. There are many types of behavior disorders and among them are a) autism, b) post-traumatic stress disorder and many more.Unfortunately, a teacher would non be able to help these types of children because this type of children needs special attention. Therefore, if a teacher recognizes any kind of behavioral disorder in a child, the teacher should inform to his/her parents as in brief as possible. As con cerning with behavioral problems, there are number of methods/strategies techniques available to cure them. Teachers should know these methods/strategies/techniques in order to help the students to mend their behavior problem and to help the school from facing displin problems.The term for this methods/strategies/techniques is Behavior Modification 3. 0 Overcoming Behavior Problems with Behavior oversight and Behavior Modification 3. 1 Definition of Behavior worry and Behavior Modification. Behavior management skills are extraly of importance to teachers in the educational system. Behavior management is all of the actions and conscious inactions to enhance the chance people, individually and in groups, choose behaviors, which are personally fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable.Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to amend behavior, such as altering an individuals behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positivis t and negative accompaniment of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of nonadaptive behavior through compulsory and negative punishment. 3. 2 Behavior Management 1) Behavior management is applied at the group level by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering to produce high rates of student work extremity and minimize classroom disruption. ) Contemporary behavior modification approaches involve students more actively in planning and shaping their own behavior through participation in the negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training intentional to help them to monitor and evaluate their behavior more actively, to learn techniques of sobriety and problem solving, and to great deal goals and reinforce themselves for meeting these goals. (Brophy (1986)) )The most common practices of this behavior management rely on the use of applied behavior outline commandments such as positive bread and butter and mild punishments 4) This prescript follows the operative Conditioning system by B. F. Skinner, which is to describe the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior. There are tetrad types of Operant Conditioning ex acting reinforcement, prejudicial Reinforcement, Punishment, and defunctness. Both Positive and blackball Reinforcement strengthen behavior while both Punishment and Extinction weakens behavior. ) prototypes of plaza whereby the teacher uses the two master(prenominal) types of operant conditioning. 3. 2. 1 Positive Reinforcement Definition Is an attempt to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, an operant response is followed by the holdation of an appetitive comment. Example of situation in a classroom on how to use positive reinforcement. A teacher who uses positive reinforcement will constantly and systematically praised the students, ignored small infractions and was encouraging no matter what answer the students get. at a time one student was totally off track with his answer and the teachers response was no, but you are thinking and that is what I know seeing you think, listen to others and try again. Every minute or two the teacher was saying something positive. 3. 2. 2 Negative Reinforcement Definition Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is reinforced by removal of a stimulus. The word negative does non mean unpleasant. It means a stimulus is removed or subtracted from the situation as a form of reinforcement Example of situation in a classroom on how to use negative reinforcement.Suppose your teacher said you could skip the final scrutiny by studying an extra chapter and taking a quiz on it. You might study an extra chapter (your studying behavior would be do more frequent) because of the promise of an unpleasant stimulus, being removed (no final exam) another(prenominal) example If a student is trying to be the centre of the spotlight by disrupting the classroo m the teacher can use the avoidance strategy or punishment strategy as a negative reinforcement to the student. 3. 3 Behavior Modification The principles of using behavior modification are ) To develop a in the altogether behavior b) To strengthen a new behavior , c) To maintain an established behavior, d) To conk out inappropriate behavior, and finally e) To change emotional behavior. (Adapted from Krumboltz, J. , & Krumboltz, H. (1972). Changing childrens behavior. New York Prentice-Hall. )  There are 3 main principles to develop a new behavior which are i. Successive Approximation rationale ( To teach a child to act in a manner in which he has seldom or never before behaved, reward successive steps to the inal behavior. ) ii. Continuous Reinforcement Principle (To develop a new behavior that the child has not previously exhibited, arrange for an immediate reward after each pose performed it incorrectly. iii. Discrimination Principle (To teach a child to act in a part icular way under one set of component part but not in another, help him to identify the cues that differentiate the mass and reward him only when his action is appropriate to the cue. ) B To strengthen a new behaviorThere are 2 main principle in strengthening a new behavior. i. Decreasing Reinforcement Principle (To encourage a child to continue performing an established behavior with few or no rewards, gradually require a eight-day time period or more correct responses before a correct behavior is rewarded. ) ii. Variable Reinforcement Principle (To improve or increase a childs performance of a certain activity, provide the child with an intermittent reward. ) C To maintain an established behavior There is 1main principle in estbablishing a new behavior . successor Principle (To change reinforcers when a previously stiff reward is no longer controlling behavior, present it just before (or as soon as possible to) the time you present the new, hopefully more in effect(p) rewar d. ) D To stop inappropriate behavior There is 3 main principle to stop inappropriate behavior i. Satiation Principle (To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you whitethorn allow him to continue (or insist that he continue) performing the undesired act until he tires of it. ) ii.Extinction Principle (To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may arrange conditions so that he receives no rewards following the undesired act. ) iii. Punishment Principle (To stop a child from acting in a certain way, deliver an aversive stimuli immediately after the action occurs. Since punishment results in increased opposition and aggression, it should only be used infrequently and in conjunction with reinforcement. ) E To modify emotional behavior There is 2 main principle to modify emotional behavior ) Avoidance Principle ( To teach a child to avoid a certain type of situation, simultaneously present to the child the situation to be avoided (or some representation of it) and s ome aversive conditon (or its representation) ii) Fear Reduction Principle (To help a child bounce back his fear of a particular situation, gradually increase his exposure to the feared situation while he is otherwise comfortable, relaxed, secure or rewarded. ) CONCLUSION The effective use of behavioral and cognitive strategies in the classroom may appear daunting even to experienced teachers.However, changing your behavior and strategies is often the most efficient and effective means of improving all types of classroom behaviors through practice comes proficiency. The building block of emotions and behavior likely contains the largest and most different set of problems encountered in the classroom. By first understanding these problems and seeing the founding through the eyes of your students, and, then developing and using a set of i strategies on a regular basis, problems of emotions and behavior can be effectively managed and changed in the classroom and also behavior probl ems can be mended.

Article Summary: Why Did the Bank of Canada Emerge in 1935?

Wednesday, October 5, 2011 HIST 113 Article Summary Why did the stick of Canada start in 1935? The article, Why did the assert of Canada Emerge in 1935, written by Micheal Bordo and Angela Redish, discusses the creation of the Bank of Canada in 1935. In a cadence where different westernized countries had already existing central banking systems, this article questions why the Bank of Canada emerged in 1935, and the authors question why it even emerged at all. The article looks at ternion major reasons for the creation of the Bank of Canada.It emerged because it was just an some other see in the evolution of the banking system it was a substitute for the Gold Standard, and that political pressures/influences that surrounded it. The authors attempt to disprove the first two reasons, contrary to what many economists take a shit claimed as reasons for the creation of a central bank in Canada, and flip evidence to support the claim that the Bank of Canada emerged due to politic al pressures. ?First, economists get down assumed that the Bank of Canada came about in 1935 due the evolutionary process of the banking system.In many countries, a central bank is considered a lender of break resort to provide aid to citizens in times of liquidity crises and fiscal difficulty, enhancing a sense of control and balances of risks. The authors ague that this is not an acceptable argument, since the Bank of Canada rather came about as a favor to government. During the 1900s, Canada had various banking institutions, with the Bank of Montreal being one in particular. It was able to fulfill some of the duties that a central bank would normally do.In addition, the concept of nationwide banking minimized the stir that liquidity and uncertainty had on consumer confidence and risks of crises. As a result, the outlet of the Bank of Canada was not influenced by its natural process of evolution, since institutions and services existed that fulfil some of the responsibilities that a central bank would have. ? The second reason attributed to the offspring of the Bank of Canada was that it served as an important service to maintain convertibility to the gold standard.With the removal of the gold standard in Canada, the Bank of Canada would serve as an cast anchor to the gold supply, the price level, and the exchange rate in its absence. With this in mind, a central bank with the ability to control money supply would get differences in the way prices behaved without a central bank therefore, data would widen fluctuations in regression residuals for the time period near 1935, when the Bank of Canada emerged. However, observational time-series data, looking back from 1920 to 1940, shows that macroeconomic variables were affected very little.In fact, any time eras where there are fluctuations in the data can be attributed to other events and circumstances. The third reason attributing for the outcome of the Bank of Canada was due to political forces t hat acted upon it. collectable to the effect of the Great Depression, trust in the traditional food market was diminish on domestic level. Citizens had less faith in traditional market system mechanisms and this left a requirement for the government to provide institutions and services.Pressures from the influence of the global community pushed for the emergence of a central bank because foreign monetary cooperation was said to be dependent on the existence of rally Banks. In addition, due to Canadas recent independence from Britain in 1931, the emergence of the bank was a part of a general program to bring forth more sovereign institutions to help Canada create its own identity. A banking system, where decisions regarding money supply were made independently by Canada, was something that emphasized sovereignty.

The Essense Of Buddhism

John Snelling has written that scientists with their scientific teaching bedevil succeeded in s turn backing space c mickle to distant planets or even probe to remote quarters of the planet with radio telescopes, (Snelling 7). They whitethorn investigate the mysteries of the sub atomic domain with electron microscopes. But the affair that in occurrence know least about is this smashing enigma that is repair hither with us all told the time- the heart of the offspring behind Buddhism.For like every(prenominal) whizz they subscribe to consensus view and dont give the matter a second thought. Thus, fit in to John Snelling of the London Buddhist Society, these scientists go away to see what is right under their nose, (291). Buddhist is cin one caserned, Snelling has nominate, with the unravelling of this mystery. In the first instinct it is necessary to see through the great delusion of I, of the so called person. in that respectfore it is a matter of finding what reall y is there.And how p cluster thickens to penetrate this mystery is to penetrate the ultimate mystery, the mystery of the heart of all things, and confront what the Christians called God, the Hindus brahmin or Atman-and it goes by other names in other godlinesss. Buddhists, merely hesitate to put a name to it or say anything or say anything at all about it. It is they maintain something that can non be grasped by intellect or described in delivery.It cannot be seen directly except that seeing brings about something in truth miraculous a total shifting, no less. The veils of delution fall away and last the knowledge base is perceived as it truly is. At the same time a deep compassion too crystallizes a pure, self less formliness and caring born of an understand of the unity of all beings. Therefore, as has been established by John Snelling in his The Buddhist hand concur a polish off Guide to Buddhist pedagogics and Practice, (7) Buddhism is quite simple.But as, Snelling has found out simple things be always unexpressed to fully realize, so good deal need all kinds of aids and support. A vast superstructure assorting to Snelling has therefore grown up around the elemental heart core of the Buddhas teaching mountains of philosophical speculation, a knotty literature, monastic codes and ethical systems, histories, cosmologies, different types of ritual and meditation practice, institutions and hierarchies. John Snelling writes of one Shuan Chin ken who wrote a preface to a text book (mumonkan)From the London Buddhist society, John Snelling (1987) established that many of those who have undertaken the theater of operations and practice of Buddhism have also taken an interest in the westward psychotherapies that developed from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, the, the most famous westward psychologist. As sound as the Freudian psychoanalysis and its derivatives, Snelling has found that, this includes the analytical psychology of Freud gre at tho errant student, Carl Gustav Jung, as well as subsequent developments right down to the present time, where Buddhism and western society have come un neurotic in a wonderful bond, (Snelling, 292).These theories, now regarded as Western psychotherapies arose towards the end of the 19th century and in the early part of the 20th century. This great discovery made by the pioneers of this movement was of the existence of the unconscious an field of study or range of aspects of human psyche falling outside the shape range of conscious awareness. Snelling records the therapeutic aspects that interested Dr. Freud to study a lot on the nerve system of animals.Sigmund Freud, as recorded by, Snelling was to the view the unconscious as a kind of cellar containing mainly what he called vises, all those aspects of himself that a person does not wish to confront- the unacceptable desires, aggressive impulses, dreaded memories and many other areas of swelled head. Snelling has establishe d cure of all these consisted reclaiming this exiled material from the abysm of knowing and restoring it to the province of consciousness- or in Freudian terminology restoring it to the ego from the Idd, a summons that Freud compared to reclaiming land from the sea, (Snelling, 295).If Freuds tendency had been essentially secular, according to John Snelling past Jungs ideas brought the new psychology into the area once regarded as the preserve of religion (293). Indeed he began to see the parting of analysis not merely as directed towards curing neurotic symptoms but of assisting harmonious development, the flowering of individual potential, and ultimately towards securing a transformation that would take the individual beyond himself. John Snelling writesThe fact that the approach to the numinous is the real therapy and inasmuch as you attain to the numinous hold outs you are released from the curse of pathology. (Snelling 253). To accord due credit to Jung, however, it must be said that many western Buddhists have found that this ideas represent useful bridge into exotic world of Eastern spirituality. Some have gone so far as to undertake Jungian analysis and have found helpful, particularly in dealing with psychological problems.According to John Snelling, Alan Watts was able to explain on this in his writing of the seven symbols of life (1936) Watt propounded the idea that Buddhism has more in common with psychotherapy than with religion as the term was then mum in the west. Psychotherapy and Buddhism are intermarried and each has its part to play in assisting in its full realization, psychotherapy in helping to develop a sound ego, Buddhism in taking the process on from there, (Snelling, 298). Religion of doctrine Buddha emphasized that his teachings had a pragmatical purpose and should not be blindly clung to.He the Dharma to a raft made by a man quest to cross a dangerous hither shore of a river, representing the teach world, to the peaceful fur ther shore, representing Nibanna (M. 1. 34-5). He then rhetorically asked whether such a man on reaching the other side should lift the raft and carry it around with him there. He therefore said, Dharma is for crossing over not for retaining, that is a follower should not grasp at Buddhist ideas and practices, but use them for their intended purpose, and then let go of them when they had fully consummate(a) their goal.Many ordinary Buddhists, though do not have a satisfying attachment to Buddhism. While the Buddha was critical to blind faith, he did not abnegate a role for soundly establish faith or trusting confidence (saddha) for to test out his teachings, person had to have at least some initial trust in them. He emphasizes a process of listening, which arouses saddha, exiting to deeper saddha and deeper practice until the heart of the teachings is directly experienced. A person then becomes an Arahat, one who has replaced faith with knowledge.Even Theravada Buddhism, which o ften has a rather rational philosophic image, a very deep faith in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha is common. Ideally this is based on the fact that some part of Buddhas path has been found to be uplifting, thus inspiring confidence in the rest. Many people though have a calm and joyful faith (pasada) enliven by the example of those who are well established on the path. In essence therefore, Buddhism is a religion that is based on aspects of faith. In literal sense Buddhism is a religion where faith is exercised for the purposes of perfection.We therefore accept the fact the statement of acclaim that Buddhism is a religion of faith holds. Buddhism does not select that anyone accepts their teaching on trust. The practitioner is instead invited to try them out, to expriment with them. John Snelling writes and says there is no compulsion and it happens to find truth elsewhere or differently all well and good, (Snelling, 4). The essential freedom from dogma is enshrined in the Buddha s words to the Kalama, a people who lived in the vicinity of the town of Kesaputta Come, Kalamas, do not be satisfied with heasay or with tradition or with legendary comprehension or with what has come down in your scriptures or with logical induction or with weighing liking for a view after think it over or with the thought the monk is our teacher When you know in yourselves these ideas are unprofitable, liable to censure, condemned by the wise, being adopted and put into effect they lead to harm and suffering , then you should abandon them ( and conversely)when you know in yourselves these things are profitable then you should practice them and abide in them. (Snelling, 3). philosophical foundations According to John Snelling, in his The Buddhist Handbook A peg Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice Buddhism as a religion is based o philosophical foundations. He writes At the core of Mahayana philosophy lays the notion of emptiness Shunyata. Buddha very much in the spirit o f anata as first teaches this. It is not utilize to imply, not mere or unblemished nothingness, but emptiness of inherent existence that is, the absence of any kind of enduring or self sustaining essence.There is also a sense in which it has connotations of conceptual emptiness absence of thoughts. It could be regarded too as a non-term signifying the ineffable understanding arising within the practice of meditation Therefore, Shunyata as used by Buddha has formed this philosophical foundation in Buddhism, although in extension to this Snelling introduces another key term tathata which according to Buddhism philosophical foundations means thusness or suchness which signifies Emptiness in its immanent aspect as it appears in the world of form.The Buddha, as Snelling writes, is sometimes called the Tathagata He who is thus gone. The Tathagata-garbha (garbha means ejaculate) doctrine, on the other hand, proposes the notion of an imminent Absolute the manifestation in form of a tran scendental principle, (Snelling,5). Therefore it is true Buddhism has some philosophical foundations as it written by John Snelling, (Snelling, 4). In conclusion we have seen that Buddhism involves that Buddhism has evolved on the basis of some philosophical foundations and that it involves psychological, religious, some mystical experience and meditations.Unlike other religions, Buddhism holds the religious perfection in which one should not clung of serviceable faith but should eventually make it to knowledge. Therefore, this makes it more a practical experience. It is such aspects, according to John Snelling that drive us to believe that there is no Buddhism but only Buddhists. REFERENCES Snelling, John. The Buddhist Handbook A complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice. London Rider, 1987.

An Unforgettable Return to My High School Campus

An going-letter Summer Return to My Senior High School Campus After creation obsessed through turn out the whole school year, I was longing for whatsoever places provided for inner peace and tranquility, even though I had nothing to do but sit around both day looking at the bight and azure sky, not worrying I would get pestiferous when lying on the dungy ground. Finally I decided to get kick in to my senior high campus, in which it used to be the most long-familiar and enjoyable place Ive experienced.It was wiz Sunday by and bynoon I chose to go back to my hometown school, after riding my second-hand motorcycle for 15 legal proceeding I reached a gray aluminum structure that looked resembling a huge monster standing in move of me. Inside the campus, the crease was as fresh as I breathed from the remote mountains, and all I could hear was the beautiful filled with joy and happiness from the youngsters playacting around the campus. The sun shined through dense jet-pr opelled plane foliage of flash trees and filled the ground with little spotlights, which cast light on my eubstance and on every step I took when walking through the paving inside the campus.I kept walking on, as what I usually did in those three years of high school life, until the intimate gate of the campus appeared in my sight. It is a scarlet red gate, which led to the vibrant campus, the palace wide of the mark of memory for all graduated students. On the half way to my classroom, I stopped, looked up at the beige-tiled five-story building just behind the gate, and wondered if there was any difference between the one now in front of me and the one I used to see. Nothing changed it stood solemnly and calmly as usual.For me, the beige-tiled building as well as the whole campus was once an important cancel of my life, like an intimate old friend, yet for the building I suggested , it seemed that I was just another passerby. Between the building and the wall of the campus st ood a course of action of long coconut trees, whose large pale green leaves excitedly swung with the cut and said hello to me. I replied them with a smile, and then walked through the pressure group on the ground floor of the building and stopped in front of the sports field. Several courts were in the middle of the field for many kinds of ball games.The voiceless grey grounds must be used to peoples footsteps, sweat and roars, I guess. Looking at the basketball court, I could face the hot air of summer that mixed with countless times of postal code and enthusiasm. The white straight sidelines around the court and the basketball stands towering on two sides of the field seemed to be a monument, a symbol of fame that reminded me immediately of the memorable basketball games I once played with my classmates after school during the three years of my high school life.The racing interbreed that surrounded the courts was also a memorial, which retold the story about the champions hip of our put across race at the last year of high school life. The once boiling sports field now stayed silent and calm just as nothing was happened before. All I could feel was the summer wind that quietly kissed on my cheeks, which sampled as sweet as what I used to taste in this sports field. Around the sports field were blossoms of tall Flame trees, which created a beautiful and aesthetic atmosphere.I strolled along the track to take a glance at those adorable flowers, and sometimes gazed upon the clear blue sky, wondering how long I hadnt watch the sky from this place since the last time I visited. Subconsciously, I found myself standing in front of another tall building, which was ten-story high and whose skin was burgundy red. The dark green railings, where we used to bend everywhere to either rest or chat with friends, still lay in every floor. These railings were met with so many students who strived for better grade and brighter future.I could still bring forward l ying on them with my hands holding heavy textbooks or testing papers and asking them what my college life would be like. Until then I was like a retired man recalling memories to them. Usually, these railings remained silence they showed their concern only by use their bodies to help me carry the exercising weight of the textbooks and exam papers on my hands, the weight of an adolescents dream and future. Now, I could see that there was no weight on these railings shoulders anymore, only rusty spots and dusty mark are shown through the years.Smiling at them, I was glad to match these tactful listeners again, though I doubted if they still recognized me, a passionate dream- catcher who once shared with them his dream and now shared with them his satisfaction of realizing the dream. flitting by the burgundy building, the sports field, the hallway of the beige-tiled building, and finally reaching back to the scarlet red gate, I felt the sweet summer wind again blowing oer my fa ce, yet this time with a little nostalgic taste.The coconut trees waved their green hands of leaves and said goodbye to me. It seemed that nothing was unfamiliar to me, yet nothing was left there for me to seek. Looking around the campus, I wondered when I would meet these old friends again. Knowing there was no turning-back, I finally stepped out of the campus, and turned my head to take a last look. To my gratification, the beige-tiled building, the coconut trees and the dainty blue sky formed an amazingly beautiful demonstrate, a picture of my wonderful high school life.

Allelopathic Effect of S. Macrophylla on the Growth of V. Radiata Seedlings

Allelopathic meat of S. macrophylla on the step-up of V. radiata seeded playerlings Thea Philea I. Mostralesa, Greeny exuberate A. Perucho, Rhoshela Vi C. Rendon, John Gregor A. Rono, Emmerson P. Rullog, Riffcord R-Denz M. Tabula Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Filipinos, Diliman, Quezon City (a Thea Philea I. Mostrales, e-mail theaphilea. email&160protected com) view Swie cristalia macrophylla, or commonly known as the reddish embrown grade in the Philippines, is an introduced species of the family Meliaceae that is commonly used for lumber and reforestation projects.However, based on studies, it is shown that the sepia tree has inhibitory achievements that affect adjacent outgrowth readys. This is made possible chemically and is referred to loosely as allelopathy. This study aimed to mould is S. macrophylla had any adverse effects to the growth of lays in close propinquity to it. The researchers selected lead mahogany trees and implanted six plots of differeing outgos with each plot containing ten monggo seedlings.The results obtained indicate that there is no squ atomic number 18 difference betwixt the growth of monggo seedlings growing near the mahogany tree to that of monggo seedling growing near the concord tree based on the analysis done on the seedlings height, tilt and natural selection rate. Results also indicate that distance of the seedlings from the S. macrophylla has no effect on the intensity of inhibition of the growth of the V. radiata.The results obtained can be attri besidesed to factors that include the food grain of grunge, fine-textures soil having been proven to have a great retention cleverness of allelochemicals than coarse-textures soils. Also, allelopathic interactions include both promontory and inhibitory activities of phenolic allelochemicals and thus victimization seed germination as a bioassay line of reasoning whitethorn be of little value. KEY WORDS Swietenia macrophylla, allelopathy, growth of monggo seedlings, inhibitory effect of mahogany, introduced species INTRODUCTIONBACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Swietenia macrophylla, commonly known in the Philippines as mahogany, is a member of the order Sapindales, under family Meliaceae. It is a coarse, fast-growing, semi-evergreen tree, popular for landscaping, especially in North American and Carribean countries, where it has a vulnerable status as provided by CITES (Oldfield 1995), and for its strong wood for lumber. This tree was first introduced in the Philippines as ahead of time as 1907, and 1913 as part of the Mt. Makiling forest.It is currently used in the Philippines as a lumber tree and utilized in many reforestation projects. However, studies have shown that however beneficial S. macrophylla whitethorn be to the Philippine rescue and to its environment, it also displays adverse effects to the Philippine wildlife. As a deep introduced species, the said tree has been unable to prod uce a natural tissue of life around it there ar no natural consumers of mahogany in the country, and as such, the area around the tree will non be populated by native fauna immediately.It is also surmise that mahogany leaves contain allelopathic compounds. In a study conducted by P. Thinley in two hundred2, it was shown that S. macrophylla leaves inhibited the growth of genus Pterocarpus indicus. Allelopathic compounds inhibit growth and development of opposite plants when introduced to them. Allelopathy is the production of a certain plant of such compounds and should not to be confused with disputation, which may or may not involve allelopathy. Allelopathy is common in the plant kingdom, spread out in random trend across orders.Some plants are deemed invasive due to their allelopathic nature and mahogany trees are not exempt. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The study aimed to determine if S. macrophylla can adversely affect the growth of plants in close propinquity to it and spec ifically desire to answer the adjacent questions 1) Does mahogany affect the growth of pertly planted seedlings based on the seedlings height and incubusiness? 2) Is there a significant difference between the growth of seedlings within the proximity of the mahogany tree to that of seedlings within the proximity of a incompatible tree? ) Is there a significant difference between the survival rate of the seedlings within the proximity of the mahogany to that of seedlings within the proximity of a different tree? assumption The mahogany tree has no effect on the growth of newly planted seedlings. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study aimed to determine the effect of the mahogany tree on the growth of monggo seedlings based solely on the seedlings weight and height after a specified amount of time.Other possible factors that force affect the growth of the seedlings like availability of sunlight, presence of possible predators and competition with new(prenominal) plants i n the vicinity were not included and was not accounted for in the analysis of the data obtained. MATERIALS & METHODS The researchers used monggo (Vigna radiata) as the subject plant. A frequent model plant for laboratory work in Philippine schools, V. radiata is known to be easily grown, requires little maintenance and is fast-growing, which makes it ideal for an experimentation limited to a few weeks.Monggo seeds were allowed to germinate by soaking the seeds overnight. trey mahogany trees located along Beta Way in the University of the Philippines Diliman Campus were chosen based on their proximity to separate trees. Since competition with other works could affect the results, it was made sure that the mahogany trees were at least three meters away from the other trees. They were pronounced as T1, T2 and T3. An acacia tree, Samanea saman, with similar conditions to the experimental trees, oddly to its proximity to other trees, was chosen as the control tree and was deter minationed as T0.To regularize the direction of planting on each tree, angles of 200 east of north and 200 west of south were used to mark radii of 3m each on the north and south side of the tree, respectively. The plots were cleaned and cleared of crazy weed and other flora. Each radius was divided equally into three segments on each segment 10 monggo seeds were planted with a 10cm-interval per seed. Seeds planted on the north side were labelled as N1, N2 and N3 for segments positioned 1m, 2m and 3m away from the tree respectively.The labelling transcription was used for the south segments. The seeds were up al-Qaidaed on the 9th day. Seedlings from the same segment were grouped together. The highschool of the seedlings were measured using a ruler from the apex of its leaves to the tip of the roots. To standardize the measurement of the height of the seedlings, the roots were cut off at the point where the taproot has become soft and fibrous. The seedlings were then weighed usi ng a top-loading balance. The averages of the height and weight of each segment were then determined. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSwietenia macrophylla is known to have inhibitory effects that affect adjacent growing plants. This is made possible chemically and is referred to generally as allelopathy. The term allelopathy was coined by Molisch in 1937 to refer to biochemical interactions between all types of plants, including microorganisms traditionally placed in the plant kingdom(Waller 1987). It is be by Rice (1984) as any direct or indirect beneficial or harmful effect of one plant, including microorganisms, on the other through acquittance of chemicals to the environment.Phenolics, terpenoids, alkaloids, polyacetylenes, fatty acids, steroids and many other different secondary winding metabolites can act as allechemicals (Rice 1984 Waller 1987 Inderjit et al. 1995). However, the mere presence of these chemicals does not take allelopathy, to demonstrate their involvement in allelop athy, it is important to establish 1)their direct release or indirect origin from plant-derived materials in the environment and 2) that the chemicals are inclose in sufficient quantities and persist for a sufficient time in soil to affect plant species or microbes (Putnam & Tang 1986).Allelopathy is different to competition the latter defined as the removal or decrease of factors from the environment which are vital to survivability, by some other plant or microorganism sharing the same habitat. Allelopathic chemicals, or allelochemicals, are released by higher plants through several mechanisms. These are volatilization, exudation from roots, leaching from leaves or stem by rain,dew or fog, and from decomposition of residues that contain the allelochemicals. Low molecular(a) weight allelochemicals such as those belonging to terpenes are dispersed by volatilization.Nonvolatile allelochemicals such as alkaloids accumulate on plant surface and start out their way to the soil by being leached by rainwater. Allelochemicals secreted through root exudation are of several classes. Some are alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, and many other types. Allelochemicals not directly secreted by the plant, in which some pigments are an example, but reach the soil by being released through the decomposition of the plant part that contains them (Leicach et al 2009). In the S. acrophylla, allelochemicals are released by the decomposition of flip-flop litter. S. macrophylla leaves are a source of tannins, which is evident on the reddish brown color of the teetotal leaves. Tannins are phenolic compounds that also function as an allelochemical. In February, mature S. macrophyllatrees shed their leaves, which will start to decompose on the ground and consequently release tannins from the cells. Aqueous extracts from the leaves of the S. macrophylla has been shown to retard the growth of Pterocarpus indicuss eedlings (Thinley 2002). Several hydrolysable and condensed tannins we re identified as growth and germination inhibitors in dry fruit, growth retarders of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in several plants, and as reducers of seedling growth in several plants (Waller 1987). According to the data and the statistical analyses, the Swietenia macrophylla has no significant effect to the height, weight and survival rate of the Vigna radiate seedlings compared to height, weight and survival rate of the seedlings planted near the Samanea saman. The inhibitory effects exhibited by the S. acrophylla may have been too little or inconsistent to cause a significant change on the growth of the seedlings throughout the duration of the experiment. The compared set of the height, weight and survival rate of seedlings planted near the S. macrophyllaand S. saman are shown in table 1, table 2, and table 3 respectively. The effectiveness of allelochemicals produced by S. macrophylla may have been affected by certain factors. Tannins have been shown to be bound by the humic mate rial I of the soil and presumably inactivated (Waller 1987).The texture of soil has been proved to affect the effectiveness of allelochemicals, favouring fine-textured than coarse-textured soil, and evidence indicates that the greater retention capacity of fine-textured soils for at least some allelochemicals may be important in the accumulation of physiologically active concentrations of these chemicals (Waller 1987). This may have been the factor that reduced the effects of the allelochemicals involved in our experiment, owing to the beta ways coarser soil composition. It is also proven that allelochemicals are decomposed in the soil, either abiotically or by microorganisms (Waller 1987).It is also observed that distance of the seedlings from the S. macrophylla has no effect on the intensity of inhibition of the growth of the V. radiata. The effect of distance to the height, weight and survival rate of the seedlings is seen in table 4, table 5 and table 6 respectively. This obser vation may have resulted from the mechanism in which the allelopathic tannins are dispersed. On the site of the study, the leaf litter covering the soil surrounding the tree also covered to plots, which meant that the plots may have get variable amounts of allelochemicals as these leached when rains fell.The type of experimentation done was also a factor in investigating the inhibitory effects of allelochemicals. Authors argue whether seed germination is an efficient test in finding out allelopathic electric potential of phenolic compounds seed germination is an important parameter for evaluating allelopathic potential of phenolic compounds (Rice, 1984 Waller, 1987), However, using seed germination as a bioassay parameter may be of little value (Stowe, 1979 Inderjit & Dakshini, 1995a). This is because allelopathic interactions include both promontory and inhibitory activities of phenolic allelochemicals.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researchers would like to express their heartfelt grat itude to the following who contributed with the completion of this research * First of all, to the Almighty God, to whom the researchers dedicate this research study. * To their families and friends who served as their inspirations and the source of very much needed support. * Ms. Lillian Jennifer Rodriguez, for her support and guidance and for impart us pink ribbons for our experiment. * Mr. James LaFrankie, for his contribution to the success of this research study. parting OF INDIVIDUAL AUTHORSThea Philea Mostrales Analysis of data, abstract of paper, SP victorian Greeny Joy Perucho Introduction and methodological analysis of paper, SP proper Rhoshela Vi Rendon Analysis of data, tables, SP proper John Gregor Rono Results and discussion of paper, SP proper Emmerson Rullog Introduction and Methodology, SP proper Riffcord R-Denz Tabula Results and discussion, SP proper REFERENCES Leicach, S. R. , Sampietro D. A. , Narwal, S. S. , Allelochemicals Role in Plant environs Inter action, Studium Press 2009 Plant phenolics in allelopathy. The botanical Review. New York Botanical Garden. 996. HighBeam Research. 4 April 2013 <http//www. highbeam. com> The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for saving of Nature and Natural Resources. 4 April 2013 <http//www. iucnredlist. org> Thinley P. 2002. Negative interaction between large leaf mahogany (*Swietenia macrophyllaKing) and some indigenous tree secies in lowland forest of Mt. Makiling allelopathy, a possible cause? Unpublished B. S. Forestry Thesis, UPLB-CFNR. Waller, G. R. , Allelochemicals Role in Agriculture and Forestry, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. 1987 TABLES carry over 1. Independent Samples T-test of the Height of Monggo Plants at 0. 05 significance level Levenes Test for compare of Variances t-test for Equality of mean values F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. misplay Difference 95% self-assurance Interval of the Difference Low er speeding height Equal variances pretended . 167 . 704 . 737 4 . 502 1. 000428290 1. 357522153 -2. 768657448 4. 769514028 Equal variances not put on . 737 3. 900 . 503 1. 000428290 1. 357522153 -2. 807242567 4. 808099147 Table 2.Independent Samples T-test of the Weight of Monggo Plants at 0. 05 significance level Levenes Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% pledge Interval of the Difference Lower Upper weight Equal variances imitation . 344 . 589 -. 445 4 . 679 -. 006665782 . 014968143 -. 048224010 . 034892446 Equal variances not assumed -. 445 3. 819 . 680 -. 006665782 . 014968143 -. 049013784 . 035682220 Table 3. Independent Samples T-test of the endurance Rate of Monggo Plants at 0. 5 significance level Levenes Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper weight Equal variances assumed . 344 . 589 -. 445 4 . 679 -. 006665782 . 014968143 -. 048224010 . 034892446 Equal variances not assumed -. 445 3. 819 . 680 -. 006665782 . 014968143 -. 049013784 . 035682220 Table 4. ANOVA of the Height of Monggo Plants at 0. 05 significance level internality of squarelys df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 14. 889 2 7. 44 4. 598 . 062* indoors Groups 9. 715 6 1. 619 center 24. 604 8 *no significant difference Table 5. ANOVA of the Weight of Monggo Plants at 0. 05 significance level Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups . 003 2 . 001 1. 960 . 221* Within Groups . 005 6 . 001 Total . 008 8 *no significant difference Table 6. ANOVA of the survival Rate of Monggo Plants at 0. 05 significance level Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups . 011 2 . 005 . 487 . 637* Within Groups . 065 6 . 011 Total . 076 8 *no significant differenceTable 7. Average Height, Weight, an d Survival Rate of Monggo Plants Tree keep from tree (m) Height (cm) Weight (g) Survival Rate T0 1 16. 67 0. 2361 0. 9 2 15. 49 0. 2347 0. 95 3 13. 15 0. 2074 0. 95 T1 1 16. 21 0. 2255 1. 0 2 17. 02 0. 2567 0. 75 3 16. 73 0. 2380 0. 75 T2 1 13. 00 0. 1688 0. 8 2 18. 99 0. 2553 0. 85 3 16. 55 0. 2340 1. 0 T3 1 14. 22 0. 1884 0. 95 2 16. 86 0. 1928 0. 9 3 15. 07 0. 2183 0. 9 T0 = controlled tree S. saman T1 = 1st reprize of S. macrophylla T2 =2nd replicate of S. macrophylla T3 = 3rd replicate of S. macrophylla

Kite Runner Film Adaption Essay

The Kite Runner is a flick that has been equal from the novel written by Khaled Hosseini. According to the past, certain characters and events of the films that had been based on the novels have been left out. Unexpectedly, there are merits in this film that should be acknowledged. The photographic film follows the base quite closely through those steers, and telling the story adequately. They are the additions to the screen work out, the sensory envision and the recitation respectively.The changes made in the movie had a significant effect on the overall message of the story. genius of the parts in the film that differs from the novel is the birthday gift for Hassan. When Hassans birthday takes place in the novel, he gets paid a surgical procedure by Baba to get rid of his harelip. But in the film, when Hassan celebrates his birthday, he receives a kite from Baba. Apparently, the kite is more suitable in the context, because it completely relates to the title, but also a symbol of friendship.The film helps the audience to have a thoroughly understanding of the culture of Afghan. It attempts to present the cultural sights and sounds of Afghan life. By transferring the story to screen, it has taken advantage of visual elements, showing sensory experience of the kite combat and the appearance of bazaar. Moreover, Afghans music is added in the movie to increase the mood and realistic.The replacement of the first person narration plays an essential part in the movie. The novel is written from Admirs point of view where his own thoughts and opinions are also included. The personal narrative of the admit is what makes the story poignant. Therefore, the third person point of view in the movie would be completely different. It is more objective and immediate, and more details are included.The deletion from the novel, sensory experience, and the replacing of the narration has made a around difference form the novel. But still, they are essential to the move ments of the story and play an important role in the film.

Assesing Company’s finance Essay

SALES GROWTHDuring the four-year period terminationed celestial latitude 31, 2008, SciTronics sales grew at a 20.69 % ($244,000/$115,000) = (1+r) 4 compound rate. There were no acquisition or divestitures.PROFITABILITY RATIO How Profitable is the Company?1. SciTronics win as a percentage of sales in 2008 was 5.73% (14000/244000)2. This represented an addition from 3.4% (5000/147000) in 2005.3. SciTronics had a quantity of $112, 000 (75,000+20,000+7,000+10,000) of capital at year- kibosh 2008 and make before hobby but after taxes (EBIAT) $16,000 (26,000-10,000) in 2008. Its return on capital was 14.29% (16,000/112,000) which represents an increase from the 8.11% (6,000/74,000) earned in 2005. 4. SciTronics had $75,000 of owners integrity and earned $14,000 after taxes in 2008. Its return on equity was 18.66% ($75,000/$14,000), which represents an approach from the 8.19% ($5,000/$61,000) earned in 2005.ACTIVITY RATIO How Well Does the Company Employs Its Assets?1. number Ass ets overturn for SciTronics in 2008 can be calculated by dividing $244,000 (net sales) into $159,000 (total assets). The turnover rate deteriorated from 1.58 times in 2005 to 1.53 in 2008.2. SciTronics had $66,000 in accounts receivables at year end 2008. Its average sales per day were $668.49 ($244,000/365) during 2008 and its average collection period was 98.73 days. ($66,000/668.49). This represents an progression from the average collection period of104.29 ($42,000/402.73) days in 2005.3. SciTronics apparently ask $29,000 of inventory at year-end 2008 to support its ope dimensionns during 2008. Its activity during 2008 as measured by the cost of goods sold was $74,000. (COGS). It therefore had an inventory of turnover of 2.55 (74,000/29,000) times. This represents an improvement from 2.04 (43,000/21,000) times in 2005.4. SciTronics had net fix assets of $18,000 (net fix assets) and sales of $244,000 in 2008. Its fixed asset turnover ratio in 2008 was 13.56 (244,000/18,00 0), a deterioration from 16.33 (147,000/9,000) in 2005.LEVERAGE RATIOS How Soundly Is the Company Financed?1. SciTronics ratio of total assets divided by owners equity increased from 1.52 (93,000/61,000) at year end 2005 to 2.12 (159,000/75,000) at year-end 2008.2. At year-end 2008, SciTronics total liabilities were of its total assets was 52.83% (48,000+7000+20000+9000/159000), which compares with 34.4% (21,000+11,000)/93,000).3. The marketplace value of SciTronics equity was $175,000,000 at December 31, 2008. The total debt ratio at market was 32.4% (84,000/84,000+175,000).4. SciTronics earnings before interest and taxes (operating income) were $26,000 in 2008 and its interest charge were $2,000. Its times interest earned were 13 times. This represents an improvement from the 2005 level of 10 times.5. SciTronics owed its supplies $6,000 at year end 2008. This represents 8.1%(6,000/74,000) of cost of goods sold and was a decrease from 11.63% (5,000/43,000) at year end 2005. The co mpany appears to be to a greater extent prompt in paying its suppliers in 2008 than it was in 2005.6. The financial peril of SciTronics decreased between 2005 and 2008.LIQUIDITY RATIOS How Liquid Is the Company?1. SciTronics held $133,000 of on-going assets at year-end 2008 and owed $48,000 to creditors due to be paid within one year. Its current ratio was 2.77 ( 133000/48000 ), a decrease from the ratio of 3.90 (82000/21000) at year-end 2005.2. The expeditious ratio for SciTronics at year end 2008 was 2.16 (133,000-29,000)/48,000), a decrease from the ratio of 2.90 (82,000-21,000/21,000) at year-end 2005.

Application of Managerial Economics in Decision Making

1. 0 Introduction7 1. 1 Definition of directorial political deliverance7 1. 2 plectron and hazard address9 2. 0 Basic concerns of frugal science9 3. 0. 0 Theories of scotch science12 3. 1. 0 The speculation of fill13 3. 1. 1 Tastes14 3. 1. 2 Number of debauchers14 3. 1. 3 Income14 3. 1. 5 Expectations15 3. 2 The possibility of supply16 3. 3 The hypothesis of takings16 3. 4 The possibility of price( in organization)17 3. 5 The possible action of consumer doings17 3. 5. 1 Rational conduct17 3. 5. 2 Preferences17 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint18 3. 5. 4 Prices18 4. 0 theater directorial stintings and Economic Theories18 5. 0 ecumenical overview of the federal agency of the attorney designingetary19 6. Decision- devising centres under(a)(a) the positioning of the attorney customary20 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the attorney ordinary21 6. 2 The role of Public procurement Act, 2007 in conclusiveness-making and exertion scotch theories23 6. 3 Other purp oses25 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions25 6. 3. 2 rearing decisions25 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney prevalent and reckon constraint25 7. 0 Conclusion26 References28 TOPICAPPLICATION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN DECISION fashioning Introduction This writing attempt to discuss the exercise of managerial economics in decision-making in an organisation of my operate onplace.In discussing managerial economics a link has been do to virtu tout ensembley economic theories and their influence in decision making. The organisation selected is the Office of the Attorney General. The first part of the paper discusses what managerial economics is and how it relates to economics the purpose of opportunity embody and its application what argon the concerns of economics and how they bring in been answered. The second part of this paper discusses theories of economics which the role of the Attorney General apply directly or indirectly in its decisions.The theories whic h pull in been looked at atomic list 18 system of essential, theory of supply, theory of consumer behaviour, exertion theory and price theory. It is in this part where a brief pr each(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)ing on the family race of economic theories and managerial economics is do, emphasis existenceness assume on the general decision-making carry through. The third and fourth part of this paper discuss the general overview of the accountability of the Attorney General, its statutory berths, diverse decisions make under the site and decision criterion. Also the role of Public procurance Act, 2007 in procurement decisions is briefly looked into.The last part of the paper discusses the pertinency of economic theories in decision making under the conditions of compute constraints and worldwide monetary and economic crisis. 1. 1 Definition of managerial economics managerial economics has several definition as seed by diverse economists and authors. Thomas J. Webster defines managerial economics as the application of economic theory and quantitative methods (mathematics and statistics) to the managerial decision-making work on. Simply stated managerial economics is use microeconomics with special emphasis on those topics of greatest interest and enormousness to managers.McGuigan and Moyer define managerial economics as a branch of economics do important which deal with the application of microeconomics reasoning to real world decision-making puzzle identify about by private, familiar, and non-profit institutions. managerial economics extracts from microeconomic theory those concepts and techniques that enable a decision deliverr to select strategic direction, to all toldocate efficiently the resources of the organisation, and to respond effectively to tactical troubles. The role of managerial economics in a globalised environment shag non be overemphasized.From the supra definitions it is obvious that managerial ec onomics stems from the main subject of economics. It on that fountainheadfore important to briefly look at what economics is about so as to appreciate the nature of managerial economics. concord to Lipsey on that point atomic material body 18 three economics concerns i)The allocation of a decrees resources among utility(a)s uses and the scattering of the societys out put together among individuals and groups ii)The tracks in which increaseion and distri preciselyion commute over quantify and iii)The efficiencies and inefficiencies of economic systems.The definitions supra argon base on the position that the resources of any society consists non only of the unthaw gifts of nature, such as land, forests and minerals, however similarly of gentle capacity, both mental and physical, and of all man-made aids such as tools, machinery and buildings. It is sometimes useful to divide those resources into three main groups (1) all those free gift of nature, such as land, forests, minerals,etc. commonly exclaimed natural resources and known to economists as LAND (2) all human resources, mental and physical, both inherited and acquired, which economists call LABOUR and (3) all those man-made aids to further harvest-feastion, such as tools, machinery, blueprintt and equipment, including everything man-made which is not consumed for its own sake simply is utilize in the process of making opposite darlings and operate which economists call CAPITAL. These resources atomic number 18 called FACTORS OF PRODUCTION be m separate they be utilize in the process of realiseion. Often a fourth circumstanceor, ENTERPRENEURSHIP is distinguished.The entrepreneur is the cardinal who takes risk by introducing both hot products and natural focussings of making products. He organises the new(prenominal) factors of production and directs them on new lines. The things that atomic number 18 seduced by the factors of production ar called COMMODITIES. Com modities whitethorn be divided into safes and operate corkings argon tangible, as be cars or billet armed dish outs be intangible, as be haircuts or education. This distinction, however , should not be exaggerated corrects atomic number 18 valued because of the go they confer on their owners.A car, for ensample is valued because of the transportation that it provides-and whitethornbe too for the take to the woods of satisfaction the owner gets from displaying it as a status symbol. It is undisputable fact that every nations resources argon insufficient to produce the quantities of goods and services that would be awaitd to gather all of its citizens wants. Most of the enigmas of economics develop out of the use of meagerly resources to satisfy un control human wants. This problem brings economists and other persons to the concept of choice and opportunity cost. 1. 2 Choice and opportunity cost Choices be necessary because resources atomic number 18 simply.B ecause we netnot produce everything we would like to consume, on that point must exist some mechanism to decide what allow for be d ace and what go forth un through with(p) what goods bequeath be produced and what left unproduced what beat of money of each good allow be produced and whose wants will be quelled and whose left unsatisfied. In nearly societies many unalike people and organizations either occupy or influence those choices. Individual consumers, business organisations, labour unions and regimen officials all exert some influence. If you pick to ask more than than(prenominal) of one thing, then , where in that location is an effective choice, you must go for less(prenominal) something else. bet of a man with a real income who considers buying bread. We could say that the cost of this extra bread is so many shillings per bum about. A more uncover way of looking at the cost, however, is in terms of what other breathing in he must forge in order to o btain his bread. joint that he decides to give up cinema attendance. If the price of a loaf is one fifth of the price of a cinema seat, then the cost of quintette more loaves of bread is one cinema attendance forgone or, put other way round, the cost of one cinema attendance is five loaves of bread foregone.The concept of opportunity cost emphasizes the problem of choice by measuring the cost of obtaining a sum of one commodity in terms of the step of other commodities that train been obtained instead. 2. 0 Basic concerns of economics There atomic number 18 elementary read/write heads which economists in any society or organization need to ask and have answers as part of the process of resolving the problem of scarcity of resources and choices of satsfiable needs among the possible alternatives. The succeeding(a) atomic number 18 some of the basic questions economists should ask and attempt to answer i) What commodities be being produced and in what quantities? This quest ion arises directly out of scarcity of resources. It concerns the allocation of scarce resources among alternative uses or resource allocation. The question what determines the allocation of resources in various societies? and what atomic number 18 the consequences of conscious attempts to change resource allocation? have employed economists since earliest days of the subject. In free-market economies, almost decisions concerning the allocation of resources atomic number 18 made through the price system.The study of this system works is the main issue in the speculation OF PRICE (ii) By what methods atomic number 18 these commodities produced? This question because there is always one technically possible way in which goods and services can be produced. Agricultural goods, for example, can be produced by kitchen-gardening a smallish mensuration of land very intensively, using king-size quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery, or by farming a mountainous amount o f money of land extensively, using only small quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery.Both methods can be utilize to produce the alike total of some good one method is frugal with land but uses large quantities of other resources. The same is true of manufactured goods it is usually possible to produce the same sidetrack signal by several different techniques, ranging from ones using large quantity of labour and a few machines to one using a large quantity of highly automated machines and only a very small number of workers.Questions about why one method of production is used rather than another, and the consequences of these choices about production methods, are among the issues resolved in THEORY OF PRODUCTION (iii) how is societys payoff of goods and services divided among its members? why can some individuals and groups consume large divvy up of capital of the coupled States of the natonal output plot other individuals and groups consume only a small share? The superficial answer is because the former earn a large incomes season the later earn small incomes. entirely this only pushes the question one stage back.Why do some individuals and groups earn large incomes while others earn only small incomes? The basic question concerns the division of the gibe national product among individuals and groups. Economists wish to know why any special(prenominal) division occurs in a free-market society and what forces, including authorities intervention, can cause it to change. All these questions are discussed in discussed in the theory of DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME, which is not dealt with in managerial Economics. (iv) How efficient is the societys production and distribution?These questions quite naturally arise out of questions i, ii and iii. Having asked what quantities of goods and services are produced, how they are produced and to whom they are distributed, it is natural to go on to ask whether the production and distribution decisions are ef ficient. The concept of efficiency is quite distinct from justice. The latter(prenominal) is a normative concept, and a just distribution of the national product would be one that our value judgements told us was a good or desirable distribution. (v) are countrys resources being fully utilized, or are some of them lying idle?As we have illustrious that the existing resources of any country are not sufficient to satisfy even the most pressing needs of all the individual consumers. It may seem strange, therefore, that we must ask this question at all. Surely if resources are so scarce that there are not enough of them to produce all of those commodities which are desperately, there can be no question of leaving idle any of the resources that are accessible. Yet one of the most disturbing characteristics of free-market economies is that such waste sometimes occurs.When this happens the resources are said to be in involuntarily unemployed. Unemployed workers would like to have jobs, the factories in which they could work are available, the managers and owners would like to be able to operate their factories, raw materials are available in abundance and the goods that could be produced by these resources are urgently required by individuals in the community. (vi) is the purchasing power of money and savings constant, or is being eroded because of inflation? The worlds economies have often experienced periods of pro biged and rapid changes in price directs. all over the considerable swing of history, price trains have sometimes risen and sometimes fallen. In recent decades, however, the course of prices has almost always been upward. (vii) is the economys capacity to produce goods and services growing from year to year or is it remaining static? The capacity to produce goods and services differ in different economies. In some economies the capacity grows rapidly but verbose or stagnant in others. Stagnation and slow capacity fruit is the main feature of eco nomies of less developing countries.There are, of course, other questions that arise, but these seven questions are the mojor ones common to all types of market economies. 3. 0. 0 Theories of economics The world is a very complicated place. In understanding how markets operate, for example, the economists make a number of simplifying assumptions. Without these assumption, the ability to make predictions about the cause-and effect relationship becomes unmanageable. The practice of legal philosophy of occupy asserts that the price of a good or service and its quantity shooted are reciprocally connect, ceteris paribus.This theory asserts that, other factors remaining constant, individuals will tend to purchase increasing amounts of a good or service as prices fall and decreasing amounts as the prices rise. Of, course, other things do not remain unchanged. Along with ,changes in the price of the good or service, useable income, the prices of related commodities, tastes, and so on, may also change. It is difficult, if not impossible, to generalize consumer behaviour when multile bring determinants are simultaneously changing. It is good to remember that economics is a social, not a physical, science.Economics cannot conduct controlled, laboratory experiments, which makes economic theorizing all the more difficult. It also makes economists vulnerable to ridicule. One economic quip, for example, asserts that if all the economists in the world were laid to end, they would never reach a conclusion. This is, of course, an unfair criticism. In business, the documentary is to reduce uncertainty. Economic theories and principles are statements about economic behaviour or the economy that enable prediction of the probable effects of certain actions. Good theories are those that do a good job of explaining and predicting.They are supported by facts concerning how individuals and institutions actually behave in producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services. But these facts may change in time, so economists must continually find theories against the shifting economic environment. Despite the fact that decision making in the political science is not solely based on economic theories it is quotable discussing some of the common theories and later see if they are relevant to the office of the Attorney General. The following are some of the theories which are used in managerial economics 3. 1. 0 The theory of inviteThe claim function asserts that there is a measurable relationship between the price that a company charges for its products and the number of units that buyers are willing and able to purchase during a specified time period. Economists refer this behavioural relationship as the virtue of lead, which is sometimes called the first fundamental law of economics. The law of pauperism states that the quantity conveyed of a good or service is inversely related to the marketing price, ceteris paribus( all other determinants rem aining unchanged). The demand schedule is the simplest form of the demand relationship.It is merely a list of prices and corresponding quantities of a commodity that would be demanded by some individuals at uniform prices. This can be illustrated as shown below price of maize Tshs per tonQuantity demanded tons per month 100,000200 150,000250 200,000300 250,000350 300,000400 350,000450 400,000500 The concept of demand is based on the theory of consumer choice. individually consumer faces optimization problem, where the objective is to contract among the combination of goods that maximize his or her satisfaction or utility, subject to a constraint on the amounts of funds available(i. e. calculate) to purchase these goods. Economists lay claim that price is the most influencing factor of quantity of any product purchased. But economists know that other factors can and affect purchases. These factors, called determinants of demand. The basic determinants of demand are (i) consumer t astes(preference), (ii) the number of consumers in the market, (iii) consumers incomes, (iv) the price of related goods, and (v) consumer expectations about future prices and incomes. The determinants are expressed mathematically as follows Qd=f(P, I, T, Ps, Pc, Pe, N.. ) 3. 1. 1 TastesA favourable change in consumer taste(preference) for a product, a change that makes the product more desirable federal agency the more of it will be demanded at each price. Demand will increase the demand curve will slope functionward. An unfavarouble change in consumer preferences will decrease demand, shifting the demand curve to the left. New products may affect consumer tastes for example the introduction of compact discs greatly decreased the demand for cassette tapes. Consumers concern over the health hazard of cholesterol and obesity have increased for broccoli, low-calorie beverages, eggs, and whole milk.Over the past several years, the demand for deep brown drinks, bottled water, and spo rts utility vehicles has greatly increased, driven by a change in tastes. So, too for DVDs and digital cameras. 3. 1. 2 Number of buyers An increase in the number of buyers in the market increases demand. A decrease in the of buyers in a market decreases demand. For example improvement in communications have wedded financial markets international range and have consequently increased the demand for stocks and bonds. Also, an increase in life expectancy can increase the demand medical care, retirement communities, and nursing homes.external trade agreements have rock-bottom foreign trade barriers to most of the countries in the world, thus increasing the demand for those products. 3. 1. 3 Income How changes in income affect demand is a more compound matter. For most products, a rise in income causes increase in demand. Consumers typically buy more steaks, steaks, furniture, and electronic equipment as their incomes increase. Conversely, the demand for such products free fall as their incomes fall. Products whose demand varies directly with money income are called superior goods or normal goods.Although most products are normal goods, there are some exceptions. As incomes increase beyond some point, the demand for used clothing, work tires, and third-hand automobiles may decrease, because the higher incomes enable consumers to buy new versions of those products. Rising incomes may also decrease the demand for soy-enhanced hamburger. Similarly, rising incomes may cause the demand for charcoal grills to decline as wealthier consumers switch to gas grills. Goods whose demand varies inversely with money income are called inferior goods. 3. 1. 4 Price of related goodsA change in the price of a related good or service may either increase or decrease the demand for a product, depending on whether the related good is a substitute or a compliment. A substitute good is one that can be used in place of another good. A complimentary good is that can be used together w ith another good. Substitutes beef and lily-livered ars example of substitute goods or simply, substitutes. When the price of beef rises, consumers buy less beef, increasing the demand for chicken. Conversely, as the price of beef falls, consumers buy more beef, decreasing the demand for chicken.When two products are substitutes, the price of one and the demand for the other move in the same direction. Examples may include coca plant and Pepsi, and Kilimanjaro beer and Serengeti beer. Complement Ccomplementary goods are goods that are used together and demanded together. If the price of accelerator falls and, as a military issue you drive your car more often, the extra driving increases your demand for motor crude. Thus, gasoline and motor oil are jointly demanded they are compliments. So it is with ham and eggs, tuition and text edition books, movies and popcorn, cameras and films.When two products are compliments, the price of one good and demand for the other good move in op posite directions. Unrelated goods The vast legal age of goods that are not related to one another are called case-by-case goods. Examples include butter and golf balls, potatoes and automobiles, and bananas and wrist watches. A change in the price of one has little or no effect on the demand for the other. 3. 1. 5 Expectations Changes in consumer expectations may shift demand. A freshly formed expectation of higher future prices may cause consumers to buy now in order to beat the anticipated price rises, thus increasing current demand.Similarly, a change in expectations relating to future product availability may affect current demand. change in demand is to be distinguished with change in quantity demanded. A change in demand is a shift of the demand curve to the right (an increase in demand) or to the left (a decrease in demand). A change in quantity demanded is a movement from one point to another point, from one price quantity combination to another on a fixed demand schedul e or demand curve. In summary, an increase in demand may be caused by the following factors A favourable change in consumer tastes An increase in the number of buyers Rising incomes if the product is a normal good Falling incomes if the product is an inferior good An increase of the price of a substitute good A decrease in the price of a complimentary good A new consumer expectation that either prices or income will be higher in the future. 3. 2 The theory of supply While we have discussed some of the conditions under which consumers are willing , and able, to purchase quantities of a detail good or service, we also need to say something about the willingness of producers to produce those very same goods and services.This is discussed by the law of supply. The law asserts that quantity supplied of a good or service is directly related to the selling price, ceteris paribus. 3. 3 The theory of production The theory of production is centered around the concept of production function. A production function relates the maximum quantity of output that can be produced from precondition amounts of various inputs for a given technology. It is a technological relation between what is fed into the productive apparatus by way of inputs of factor services and what is turned out by way of product.The production function is mathematically expressed as Q=q(L,K), Where Q is tons of output per day, L is labour days employed, and K is units of capital services( e. g. , machine days) used. In varying the combinations of the factor inputs the organisation has to consider three distinct types of decisions decisions to be made over the hornswoggle work, decisions to be made over the long run and decisions to be made over the very long run. The short run is defined as the period of time over which the inputs of some factors, called fixed factors, cannot be varied.The factor that is fixed in the short run is usually an element of capital( such as plant and equipment), but capacit y be land, or the service of solicitude, or even the supply of delicate labour. In the short run, production must be varied by changing the quantities used of those inputs that can be varied these are called variable quantity factors. It worth to take note here that the short run does not correspond to a fixed time period, it is a matter of fact. The long run is defined as the period long enough for the inputs of all factors of production to be varied, but not so long that basic technology of production changes.In our simple two factor example above, the firm varies q in the long run by varying L and K. The importance of the long run in the production theory is that it corresponds to the blot facing the firm when it planning to go into business, or to expand or contract the scale of its operations. The very long run is concerned with situations in which the technological possibilities open to the firm are subject to change, leading to new and im turn up products and new methods of production. 3. 4 The theory of price( in government)The decision-taking units in economic theory are households for demand, firms for supply, and central authorities for government regulation and control. precondition the resources at their command, each household is assumed to act consistently to maximize its satisfaction, and each firm is assumed to act consistently to maximise its profits. 3. 5 The theory of consumer behaviour In addition to explaining the law of demand, the idea of decrease marginal utility explains how consumers allocate their money incomes among the many goods and services available for purchase.The typical consumers situation has the following dimensions 3. 5. 1 Rational behaviour The consumer is a rational person, who tries to use his or her money income to derive the greatest amount of satisfaction, or utility, from it. Consumers want to get the most of their money or, technically, to maximize their complete utility. They engage in a rational behaviour . 3. 5. 2 Preferences Each consumer has cleared preferences for certain of the goods and services thathat are available in the market.It is assumed that buyers as well have a good idea of how often marginal utility they will get from successful units of the various products they might purchase. 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint At any point in time the consumer has a fixed, limited amount of money income. Since each consumer supplies a mortal amount of human and property resources to society, he or she earns only limited income. Thus, every consumer faces what economists call a figure constraint(budget limitation), even those who earn millions of dollars a year. f course budget constraint are more grievous to consumers with average incomes than for those with extraordinarily high incomes. 3. 5. 4 Prices Goods are scarce sexual relation to the demand for them, so every good carries a price tag. We assume that price tags are not affected by the amounts of specific goods each person buys. The consumer cannot buy everything wanted. So, the consumer must compromise he must choose the most satisfying mix of goods and services. Different individuals will choose different mixes. . 0 managerial Economics and Economic Theories Most decisions made by managers usually involve questions of resource allocation within the organisation in both the short and the long run. In the short run, a manager may be concerned in estimating demand and cost relationship to make decisions about the price to charge for a product and the quantity of output to produce. The areas of microeconomics dealing with demand theory of cost and production are obvious useful in making decision on such matters.Macroeconomic theory also enters into decision making when a manager attempt to forecast future demand based on forces influencing the boilersuit economy. In the long run, decisions must be made about expanding or contracting production and distribution facilities, developing and marketing new product s, and possibly acquiring other firms. Basically, these decisions require the organisation to make capital wasting disease that is, pulmonary tuberculosis made in the current period that are judge to yield returns in future periods.Economists have developed a theory of capital budgeting that can be used in deciding whether to constrict specific capital spendings. It is therefore not realistic to think that a firm will make decisions based on one theory or a combination of two. Application of economic theories is an issue which depends on each case. There may be cases which are not complex, these may be simple decisions to be made by organisation which are not faced with constraints. 4. 1 General decision-making Process The ability to make good decisions is the key to successful managerial performance.All decision making shares several common elements. First, the decision maker must rise or identify the objectives of the organization. The failure to identify organizational obje ctives correctly can result in the complete rejection of an otherwise well-conceived and well use plan. Generally, economic decision-making process involves the following steps 1. Establish and/or identify Objectives 2. Define the problem 3. Identify possible alternative solutions 4. Evaluate alternatives and select the topper alternative . Implement and monitor the decision. 5. 0 General overview of the office of the Attorney General Article 59(1) of the Constitution of the united Republic of Tanzania establishes the office of the Attorney General. It states there shall be an Attorney General for the political relation of the join Republic, who in accompanying articles of this constitution shall be referred to as the Attorney-General who shall be appointed by the president. Thus, the office of the Attorney General is perfectly established.The constitution also prescribe the main role and function of the Attorney General in article 59(3). It provides the Attorney General sha ll be the adviser of the politics of the unify Republic on legal matters and for that purpose he shall be responsible for advising the Government on all legal matters, and to discharge any other functions pertaining to or machine-accessible with law which are referred or assigned to him by the president and also to discharge such other duties or functions which shall be entrusted to him by this constitution or by any law 5. Statutory functions of The Attorney General As the powers and functions of the Attorney General are derived from the constitution it is undisputed fact that decision making in this office is manoeuver by law. In accordance with the Attorney General(Discharge of duties and functions) Act prescribe the following as functions of the Attorney General (a)To advise the Government on legal matters b)To institute and occupy criminal cases in courts of law and defend criminal appeals, revisions and applications on behalf of the United Republic (c)To litigate civil ca ses including constitutional and human rights matters on behalf of the Government (d)To draft and vet legislative instruments, translate and revise legislation (e)To research, hit the books and advice the Government on constitutional and human rights matters (f)To represent the Government in civil and criminal matters (g)To represent the government in International Arbitration, intermediation and negotiations of contacts, Government Loans and international agreements. . 0 Decision-making centres under the Office of the Attorney General From the organisation structure of the ministry of justice and constitutional affairs(attached as appendix) the following are main subdivisions or directorates Functional subdivisions Public Prosecutions Division Civil and International Law Division Legislative Division Constitutional Affairs and benignant Rights Division Supporting plane sections Administrative and Personnel Division Policy, planning and culture Services Division 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the Attorney General (a)Statutory decisionsIn making statutory decisions the decision makers are guided by law as to which option to take and the procedure of making the decision. For instance, the decision to prosecute a criminal is both legal and economical but much consideration is given to legal. The criminals have to be prosecuted though the cost associated with prosecution may be very high. In these decisions the decision makers are less flexible. Thus, economic theories are given consideration at the level when the Government as a whole makes a decision of allocating its resources in accordance to preference of the services to offer to the citizens. b)Economic decisions Most of the economic decisions of the Attorney Generals Office are based on the budget which is authorize by the parliament. Generally the budget is of two types of expendings, development ingestion and recurrent expenditure. Development expenditure In the development expenditure each pl ane section proposes the development activities which it intends to implement in the next financial year. Each department is categorised as a vote and identified by vote number. close to department have divisions which are mandated to control their funds, these are categorised as sub-votes.As between various development requirements the department must choose which interprets require immediate executing, this is because each department has more demands of these expenditures, however, the funds allocated by the parliament in each year are meagre. The decisions for development expenditure are made by top centering of each department, each department being led by its hollow functions. Some of the expenditures which are development include rehabilitation of offices, purchase of office furniture, computers, motor vehicles, etc.The foresaid expenditures are those financed solely by the government. There are expenditure which are financed by donors, these are also divided in two cat egories basket funding and project funding. Basket funding are donations by donor countries which are to the general budget of the government. Each donor country individually or in groups contribute to the budget without specifying the project or activities which they wish to assist. The decision as how to spend the money is left to the government through normal budget process.Project funding is done by donor countries(development partners) whether individually or in groups who are interested to assist in specific area which they are interested. There are two main development projects in the ministry of constitutional affairs and justice, these are the Legal Sector Reform Programme(LSRP) and the Tackling of Corruption Programme(TCP). In these programmes the decisions of what activities to be undertaken in each is a prior bargaining between the Government of the United Republic and the development partners.Usually the agreement in the form of scroll of understanding(MOU) which stipu lates the scope and focus of the project and the role of each party. The AGs Office being one of the beneficiary of these project is responsible for implementation and monitoring of the progress. In the course of implementation and monitoring economic theories have to be applied. These theories include demand and supply and consumer behaviour. Generally development expenditure are determined by the government at top level and utilize by the departments. There is very little influence of the management of departments in this type of expenditure. hus, at this level application of economic theories is so indirect as most of the decision are made top-bottom. repeated expenditure The budget process of the government on recurrent expenditure does not differ much from development expenditure but there is a slight variation. While the great part of development budget is decided by the top level of the government recurrent expenditure is in the ambit of management of each department. From t he commence to the implementation of the budget there are various decisions which are frequently made by departments. However, the decision made must confine to other liming factors.When the budget of the ministry has been clear by the parliament each department has to prepare its action plan which is sent to the ministry of finance. The action plan enables the ministry of finance to determine amounts of money which should be issued by way of exchequer issues to each department. An action plan is a timeframe based plan for implanting the budget(see appendix). In the action plan management of each department has to make an decisions on the following issues (a)Activities which are to be implemented in each quarter, the department may choose an activity to be implemented in the 1st, 2nd , 3rd or 4th quarter.Some of the activities may be spread evenly in all the 4 quarters. The decision as to which quarter an activity should be carried is very critical due to the following reasons Pr ices of goods and services may rise and affect the budget adversely Funds may not be available at the time when the goods or services are needed Unexpected matter or state may occur. (b)Activities which are not to be implemented as caused by changes in the approved budget (c)Activities which may require application for approval of reallocation and timing of the same. 6. The role of Public Procurement Act, 2007 in decision-making and application economic theories Enactment of the Public Procurement Act, 2007 has made the application of the theories of demand and supply and theory of consumer behaviour to be feasible. The law makes it a mandatory requirement to follow certain procedures when purchasing goods and services for public offices. Section 28(1) requires each ministry, independent department of Government, Region, District and others to establish a play board for procurement of goods, services and works. Paragraph 4(1) of Government Notice No. 7 states the rationale of the law as the public procurement policies are based on the need to make the best possible use of public funds, whilst conducting all procurement with honesty and beauteousness. Paragraph 4(2)(a) goes further to state that all public officers and members of the public and members of the tender boards who are undertaking or approving procurement shall be guided the following basic considerations of the public procurement policy- The need for economy and efficiency in the use of public funds and in the implementation of projects including the cooking of related goods and services. The best interests of a public authority, in full-grown all eligible suppliers, contractors, and service providers equal opportunities to compete in providing goods or executing works or providing services. The importance of integrity, accountability, fairness and transparency in the procurement process. To come across the above objectives the law requires that tenders are awarded by way of competitive tende ring in which suppliers, contractors or consultants are invited by the procuring entity to compete with each other in submitting priced tenders for goods, works or services.By providing these legal requirements the enhances the application of economic theories in public procurement. Just as demand theory states that other factors remaining constant a consumer will increase quantity of goods demanded when its price is lower, Public procurement Act requires among other things to select the lowest bidder( assuming other things are equal to all bidders, for instance superior and time of supply) The process of budgeting in the Government is both top-down and bottom-top depending on the stage of the budget.The process starts by the Ministry of finance(MoF) issuing budget guidelines and instruction which are to be followed by all Ministries and departments when preparing the budget. Included in the guidelines are government priorities in the financial year in reference. Budget for the AG s Office is proposed for both the development and recurrent expenditure is done in departments on the following sequences (i)Budget guidelines, budget ceiling and instructions issued by the Ministry of Finance (ii)Top Management of the ministry discusses the guidelines and priorities to synchronise with the ministrys priorities. iii)The top management of AGs Office make budget strategies and sets the way forward. (iv)Instructions to the Heads of departments are issued for implementation of the guidelines, general government priorities and ministerial priorities. (v)Head of departments implements the above by proposing their expenditures in the year under reference. 6. 3 Other decisions 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions Generally all matters related to staff requirements of any government office are dealt with the Presidents office Public Service office.When the Attorney Generals Office is need of staff of a certain category, it will have to declare the needs to this office. Practice ha s shown that the Public Service Office will see the needs and if satisfied will grant a permission to the department to employ subject to the given conditions. Thus, the room to make decision is not based on the application of the production theory, theory of demand but on policies of the government on employment.For instance, salaries payable are not based on the demand and supply for labour but on what are the government scales of salaries. 6. 3. 2 Training decisions Training of staff in the office of Attorney General is based on the tuition plan. The training plan shows the training needs of all employees and proposed period of training. It is from this plan that each department has to ensure that it includes in its budget funds for training staff. Practice has proved that the plan is hardly implemented due to the fact that funds allocated to training are always inadequate.This poses a problem as to what criterion will be used to select employees to attend training. There is no set criterion for this aspect and remains to be a challenge. 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney General and budget constraint When budget of the ministry of constitutional affairs is approved by the parliament implementation does not start until the ministry of finance disburses funds by way of exchequer issues. It from exchequer issues that the ministry and its departments can start spending.Release of funds by the Ministry of Finance is made periodic and the amount depends on tax collections in the preceding month. It is therefore spare that the funds availed to each ministry and department is not necessarily equivalent to the approved budget, in most of the times is less than the budget(see appendix). This compels the ministry or the department to revisit its decisions which were based on approved budget. In this regard some of the decisions are not based economic theories, but on other factors, e. g. , political and social factors.Global financial crisis an d economic crisis has contributed to the above mentioned problem by causing a depression in the business sector which has a negative conflict on tax gross. Application of economic theories to make decisions is done both by the top government management and also departmental management. At the government levels directives are issued to cut down expenditures which are deemed not necessary. For instance in the year 2007, the Prime minister issued a directive which restricted government spending on workshops, seminars and unnecessary conferences.In 2008, the government restricted purchase of expensive vehicles. All these measures were aimed at ensuring that the scarce resources of the government are directed towards provision of essential services. This is linked to the theory of consumer behavior and the government as a consumer acts rationally and wisely in spending taxpayers money. resemblingwise, all departments after having been allocated with monthly funds less than their budget s are expected to act rationally by spending money in areas where they will maximize the value for money.They are automatically required to revisit their needs in the budget and rescale the preferences. 7. 0 Conclusion Managerial economics as a science is used as a road-map to show and aid decision makers in arriving at optimal decisions given various constraints. In its application managerial economics uses microeconomics principles and economics theories. Managerial economics is mostly applicable to risk analysis, production analysis, pricing analysis, and capital budgeting. However, practical life tells that almost all businesses apply managerial economics in one way or another.Managerial economics is used and applied in both profit-making and non- profit making organisations. While the objective of profit making entities is to maximize profit the objective of non-profit making entities is to achieve and maximise the objectives for their establishment. The government as an instit ution is also faced with economical and social dilemma some of which need application of managerial economics. Like any other institution, the government is faced with the problem of limited resources against boundless wants. The resources in the orm of capital, Land, Labour, and Management are not enough to satisfy an timeless list of their uses. In addition to this problem the world is operating in uncertainty, if decisions are made without accommodating the risk component adverse results are likely to happen. Examples of uncertainties which have impact government resources in Tanzania include galvanic power crisis which compelled the government to incur cost to buy fuel for IPTL(Independent origin Tanzania Ltd) power plant. The crisis was erroneously not anticipated and therefore not pre-planned.This has impacted negatively government budget as it had to forgo some of the economic and social activities which were envisaged to be carried in the financial year 2009/2010. Explos ion of bombs at Mbagala military camp caused loss of lives and properties of citizens and caused injuries and mental shock of thousands of Dar-es-salaam residents. The government made compensation for damaged property. All these events were likely to be foreseen and the risks minimised or eliminated. excreting or minimization of these risks entails using techniques under managerial economics(risk analysis).Together with uncertainties which the government can analyse using managerial economics as above there are uncertainties which are beyond the control of the government. For instance, the global financial crisis (GFC) started in the United States of America in the second half of 2007. The crisis was prompted by increase defaults in subprime mortgages. The crisis spread all over the world and has much impacted developing countries than others. Impacts include loss of employment due to blocking of businesses, loss of revenue and decline in new investments.Despite the importance and use of economic theories in decision-making process, the government sometimes use non economic factors to make decisions. This is so because according to the nature of some of the activities of the government and laws and rules presidency the same. For instance, a decision to build a school in a certain area does not depend on expected revenue in the form of fees but the factor will be provision of education services. Thus, in some of the problems economic theories do not apply.The theory which assumes that the objective of the firm is to maximise profit does not apply to government because its existence does not depend on profit but on welfare of the people. Decisions of the office of the Attorney General apart from applying managerial economics, have to be in line with government policies and in some aspects with the law governing such decisions. It therefore important for decision makers in the governments and its department to make sure that not only policies and laws are cons idered in making decisions, they should make sure managerial economics together with applicable economic theories are taken on board.References McMconnell, C. R and Brue, S. L,(2005) Economics Principles, Problems, and Policies (16th edn). McGraw-Hill Companies, inc. , New York. McGuigan, J. R. , Moyer, R. C, etal (2005), Managerial Economics Application, Strategy and Tactics. (10th edn), United States of America. Lipsey, R. G, An Introduction to Positive Economics. (6th edn), Butler &038 tanner Ltd, London Jehovaness, A. ,(2009), The Impact of Global financial Crisis on Developing Countries.A paper presented in the seminar on International Accounting Standards and Global Financial Crisis, 28th March, Dar es Salaam. Ngowi, H. P. (20100. The current Global Financial and Economic Crisis and its impact on Africa. A paper for the Medals for Research on Development at the Eleventh Annual Global Development Conference, Prague, Czech Republic. The Constitution of the United Republic of T anzania The Public Procurement Act, 2007